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      Determination of gluten immunogenic peptides for the management of the treatment adherence of celiac disease: A systematic review

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          Abstract

          BACKGROUND

          Gluten is a complex mixture of proteins with immunogenic peptide sequences triggering the autoimmune activity in patients with celiac disease (CeD). Gluten immunogenic peptides (GIP) are resistant to gastrointestinal digestion and are then excreted via the stool and urine. Most common detection methods applied in the follow-up visits for CeD patients such as serology tests, dietetic interviews, questionnaires, and duodenal biopsy have been proved to be inefficient, invasive, or inaccurate for evaluating gluten-free diet (GFD) compliance. Determination of excreted GIP in stool and urine has been developed as a non-invasive, direct, and specific test for GFD monitoring.

          AIM

          To summarize published literature about the clinical utility of GIP determination in comparison to the tools employed for GFD monitoring.

          METHODS

          PubMed and Web of Science searches were performed using the keywords “gluten immunogenic peptides” or “gluten immunogenic peptide” and a combination of the previous terms with “feces”, “stools”, “urine”, “celiac disease”, “gluten-free diet”, and “adherence” to identify relevant clinical studies published in English and Spanish between 2012 to January 2021. Reference lists from the articles were reviewed to identify additional pertinent articles. Published articles and abstracts reporting the clinical use of GIP determination in stool and/or urine for the follow-up of patients with CeD in comparison with other tools in use were included. Case reports, commentaries, reviews, conference papers, letters, and publications that did not focus on the aims of this review were excluded.

          RESULTS

          Total of 15 publications were found that involved the use of GIP determination in stool and/or urine to monitor the adherence to the GFD in comparison to other tools. Studies included both children and adults diagnosed with CeD and healthy volunteers. Overall, these preliminary studies indicated that this novel technique was highly sensitive for the detection of GFD transgressions and therefore could facilitate the follow-up of patients with CeD. Tools identified in this work included the CeD-specific serology, dietetic questionnaires, symptomatology, and the duodenal biopsy. Review of the literature revealed that the rates of GFD adherence may vary between 30%-93% using either stool or urine GIP determination, 49%-96% by the serology, 59%-94% using the dietetic questionnaires, 56%-95% by the reported symptoms and 44%-76% with the duodenal biopsy. In addition, the association between the different methods and histological abnormalities (Marsh II-III) was found to be 33%-100% for GIP determination (stool and urine), 25%-39% for CeD-specific serology, 3%-50% for dietetic questionnaires, and 22%-28% for the symptomatology.

          CONCLUSION

          Excreted GIP detection is the precise approach for determining voluntary or involuntary gluten consumption in CeD patients preventing future complications arising from gluten exposure.

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          Most cited references65

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          Celiac disease: a comprehensive current review

          Background Celiac disease remains a challenging condition because of a steady increase in knowledge tackling its pathophysiology, diagnosis, management, and possible therapeutic options. Main body A major milestone in the history of celiac disease was the identification of tissue transglutaminase as the autoantigen, thereby confirming the autoimmune nature of this disorder. A genetic background (HLA-DQ2/DQ8 positivity and non-HLA genes) is a mandatory determinant of the development of the disease, which occurs with the contribution of environmental factors (e.g., viral infections and dysbiosis of gut microbiota). Its prevalence in the general population is of approximately 1%, with female predominance. The disease can occur at any age, with a variety of symptoms/manifestations. This multifaceted clinical presentation leads to several phenotypes, i.e., gastrointestinal, extraintestinal, subclinical, potential, seronegative, non-responsive, and refractory. Although small intestinal biopsy remains the diagnostic ‘gold standard’, highly sensitive and specific serological tests, such as tissue transglutaminase, endomysial and deamidated gliadin peptide antibodies, have become gradually more important in the diagnostic work-up of celiac disease. Currently, the only treatment for celiac disease is a life-long, strict gluten-free diet leading to improvement in quality of life, ameliorating symptoms, and preventing the occurrence of refractory celiac disease, ulcerative jejunoileitis, and small intestinal adenocarcinoma and lymphoma. Conclusions The present review is timely and provides a thorough appraisal of various aspects characterizing celiac disease. Remaining challenges include obtaining a better understanding of still-unclear phenotypes such as slow-responsive, potential (minimal lesions) and seronegative celiac disease. The identification of alternative or complementary treatments to the gluten-free diet brings hope for patients unavoidably burdened by diet restrictions.
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            Integration of genetic and immunological insights into a model of celiac disease pathogenesis.

            Celiac disease (CD) is a gluten-sensitive enteropathy that develops in genetically susceptible individuals by exposure to cereal gluten proteins. This review integrates insights from immunological studies with results of recent genetic genome-wide association studies into a disease model. Genetic data, among others, suggest that viral infections are implicated and that natural killer effector pathways are important in the pathogenesis of CD, but most prominently these data converge with existing immunological findings that CD is primarily a T cell-mediated immune disorder in which CD4(+) T cells that recognize gluten peptides in the context of major histocompatibility class II molecules play a central role. Comparison of genetic pathways as well as genetic susceptibility loci between CD and other autoimmune and inflammatory disorders reveals that CD bears stronger resemblance to T cell-mediated organ-specific autoimmune than to inflammatory diseases. Finally, we present evidence suggesting that the high prevalence of CD in modern societies may be the by-product of past selection for increased immune responses to combat infections in populations in which agriculture and cereals were introduced early on in the post-Neolithic period.
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              Coeliac disease

              Coeliac disease is an immune-mediated enteropathy against dietary gluten present in wheat, rye and barley and is one of the most common lifelong food-related disorders worldwide. Coeliac disease is also considered to be a systemic disorder characterized by a variable combination of gluten-related signs and symptoms and disease-specific antibodies in addition to enteropathy. The ingestion of gluten leads to the generation of harmful gluten peptides, which, in predisposed individuals, can induce adaptive and innate immune responses. The clinical presentation is extremely variable; patients may have severe gastrointestinal symptoms and malabsorption, extraintestinal symptoms or have no symptoms at all. Owing to the multifaceted clinical presentation, diagnosis remains a challenge and coeliac disease is heavily underdiagnosed. The diagnosis of coeliac disease is achieved by combining coeliac disease serology and small intestinal mucosal histology during a gluten-containing diet. Currently, the only effective treatment for coeliac disease is a lifelong strict gluten-free diet; however, the diet is restrictive and gluten is difficult to avoid. Optimizing diagnosis and care in coeliac disease requires continuous research and education of both patients and health-care professionals.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                World J Gastroenterol
                World J Gastroenterol
                WJG
                World Journal of Gastroenterology
                Baishideng Publishing Group Inc
                1007-9327
                2219-2840
                7 October 2021
                7 October 2021
                : 27
                : 37
                : 6306-6321
                Affiliations
                Research and Development, Biomedal, Camas 41900, Seville, Spain
                Human Nutrition and Food Science Doctoral Program, University of Granada, Granada 18011, Spain
                Research and Development, Biomedal, Camas 41900, Seville, Spain
                Molecular Biology, Biomedicine and Clinical Research Doctoral Program, University of Seville, Seville 41012, Spain
                Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Seville, Seville 41013, Spain
                Department of Gastroenterology, Dr. Carlos Bonorino Udaondo Gastroenterology Hospital, Buenos Aires 1264, Argentina. jbai@ 123456intramed.net
                Research Institutes, Universidad del Salvador, Buenos Aires 1050, Argentina
                Research and Development, Biomedal, Camas 41900, Seville, Spain
                Author notes

                Author contributions: Coto L, Mendia I, Sousa C, Bai JC and Cebolla A contributed equally to the revision of the literature, wrote the draft, and/or revised the final manuscript for intellectual content.

                Supported by Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación, No. DI-16-08943 and No. DI-17-09627.

                Corresponding author: Julio César Bai, MD, Professor, Department of Gastroenterology, Dr. Carlos Bonorino Udaondo Gastroenterology Hospital, Av. Caseros 2061, Buenos Aires 1264, Argentina. jbai@ 123456intramed.net

                Article
                jWJG.v27.i37.pg6306
                10.3748/wjg.v27.i37.6306
                8515793
                34712034
                61798e0b-5ddc-4f32-9579-becb1aaae2d9
                ©The Author(s) 2021. Published by Baishideng Publishing Group Inc. All rights reserved.

                This article is an open-access article that was selected by an in-house editor and fully peer-reviewed by external reviewers. It is distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/Licenses/by-nc/4.0/

                History
                : 22 March 2021
                : 28 June 2021
                : 2 September 2021
                Categories
                Systematic Reviews

                celiac disease,gluten-free diet,gluten immunogenic peptides,immunoassays,stool,urine

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