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      La grippe est-elle encore le modèle des infections virales émergentes ? Translated title: Is still flu the right model for emerging viral infections?

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          Résumé

          Les infections virales émergentes sont un défi pour l’organisation des politiques de santé publique dans nos sociétés. Au cours des dernières décennies, de nombreux pathogènes viraux ont fait irruption en médecine, qu’il s’agisse de virus nouvellement apparus dans la population humaine, de virus déjà présents mais nouvellement identifiés ou de virus connus exprimant des propriétés épidémiologiques inattendues. Plusieurs facteurs interviennent dans la survenue des émergences virales, parmi lesquels la circulation des virus à partir des animaux, l’évolution génétique constante des virus, les facteurs génétiques humains, les changements environnementaux et sociaux. La pandémie à VIH-1 fournit un bon exemple de la réussite émergentielle d’un rétrovirus simien introduit chez l’homme et de son effet délétère sur la démographie et l’économie de nombreux pays. Les virus grippaux restent un modèle classique et persistant d’émergence virale, du fait de la convergence de plusieurs propriétés favorisantes, en particulier, un réservoir animal constitué par les oiseaux et les mammifères ainsi qu’un génome à ARN segmenté propice à la survenue de mutations ponctuelles et de réassortiments génétiques. Deux exemples récents, la grippe aviaire due au virus A/H5N1 et la pandémie due au virus A/H1N1 2009, montrent les difficultés à prédire le déroulement des émergences virales et définir la stratégie de contrôle la mieux adaptée. En dépit de leur complexité, les infections grippales sont une incitation permanente à mieux connaître et mieux gérer les émergences virales.

          Summary

          Emerging viral infections are a crucial challenge to the organization of human public health policies. In the past decades, numerous viral pathogens have barged into the field of medicine, being viruses either newly appeared in the population or newly identified or exhibiting unexpected epidemiological properties. Several factors have been reported to promote such emergences, including viral traffic from animals, ongoing viral genetic evolution, host factors, environmental and social changes. As an example, HIV-1 pandemic perfectly illustrates the evolutionary success of a simian retrovirus introduced into the human population as well as its dramatic impact both on the demographic and economic status of many countries. Influenza viruses remain a classic persisting model of emerging pathogens, which is supported by the coalescence of many contributing characteristics, particularly an animal reservoir consisting of birds and mammals and a segmented RNA genome prone to point mutations and reassortments. Two recent examples, the avian flu due to A/H5N1 virus and the pandemic flu due to A/H1N1 2009, show the difficulties both for predicting the outcome of flu emergences and defining the right strategy for their control. Despite their complexity, influenza virus infections provide a permanent incitement to improve our knowledge and monitoring of viral emergences.

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          Most cited references17

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          Pneumonia and respiratory failure from swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) in Mexico.

          In late March 2009, an outbreak of a respiratory illness later proved to be caused by novel swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus (S-OIV) was identified in Mexico. We describe the clinical and epidemiologic characteristics of persons hospitalized for pneumonia at the national tertiary hospital for respiratory illnesses in Mexico City who had laboratory-confirmed S-OIV infection, also known as swine flu. We used retrospective medical chart reviews to collect data on the hospitalized patients. S-OIV infection was confirmed in specimens with the use of a real-time reverse-transcriptase-polymerase-chain-reaction assay. From March 24 through April 24, 2009, a total of 18 cases of pneumonia and confirmed S-OIV infection were identified among 98 patients hospitalized for acute respiratory illness at the National Institute of Respiratory Diseases in Mexico City. More than half of the 18 case patients were between 13 and 47 years of age, and only 8 had preexisting medical conditions. For 16 of the 18 patients, this was the first hospitalization for their illness; the other 2 patients were referred from other hospitals. All patients had fever, cough, dyspnea or respiratory distress, increased serum lactate dehydrogenase levels, and bilateral patchy pneumonia. Other common findings were an increased creatine kinase level (in 62% of patients) and lymphopenia (in 61%). Twelve patients required mechanical ventilation, and seven died. Within 7 days after contact with the initial case patients, a mild or moderate influenza-like illness developed in 22 health care workers; they were treated with oseltamivir, and none were hospitalized. S-OIV infection can cause severe illness, the acute respiratory distress syndrome, and death in previously healthy persons who are young to middle-aged. None of the secondary infections among health care workers were severe. 2009 Massachusetts Medical Society
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            Severe respiratory disease concurrent with the circulation of H1N1 influenza.

            In the spring of 2009, an outbreak of severe pneumonia was reported in conjunction with the concurrent isolation of a novel swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) virus (S-OIV), widely known as swine flu, in Mexico. Influenza A (H1N1) subtype viruses have rarely predominated since the 1957 pandemic. The analysis of epidemic pneumonia in the absence of routine diagnostic tests can provide information about risk factors for severe disease from this virus and prospects for its control. From March 24 to April 29, 2009, a total of 2155 cases of severe pneumonia, involving 821 hospitalizations and 100 deaths, were reported to the Mexican Ministry of Health. During this period, of the 8817 nasopharyngeal specimens that were submitted to the National Epidemiological Reference Laboratory, 2582 were positive for S-OIV. We compared the age distribution of patients who were reported to have severe pneumonia with that during recent influenza epidemics to document an age shift in rates of death and illness. During the study period, 87% of deaths and 71% of cases of severe pneumonia involved patients between the ages of 5 and 59 years, as compared with average rates of 17% and 32%, respectively, in that age group during the referent periods. Features of this epidemic were similar to those of past influenza pandemics in that circulation of the new influenza virus was associated with an off-season wave of disease affecting a younger population. During the early phase of this influenza pandemic, there was a sudden increase in the rate of severe pneumonia and a shift in the age distribution of patients with such illness, which was reminiscent of past pandemics and suggested relative protection for persons who were exposed to H1N1 strains during childhood before the 1957 pandemic. If resources or vaccine supplies are limited, these findings suggest a rationale for focusing prevention efforts on younger populations. 2009 Massachusetts Medical Society
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              Triple-reassortant swine influenza A (H1) in humans in the United States, 2005-2009.

              Triple-reassortant swine influenza A (H1) viruses--containing genes from avian, human, and swine influenza viruses--emerged and became enzootic among pig herds in North America during the late 1990s. We report the clinical features of the first 11 sporadic cases of infection of humans with triple-reassortant swine influenza A (H1) viruses reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, occurring from December 2005 through February 2009, until just before the current epidemic of swine-origin influenza A (H1N1) among humans. These data were obtained from routine national influenza surveillance reports and from joint case investigations by public and animal health agencies. The median age of the 11 patients was 10 years (range, 16 months to 48 years), and 4 had underlying health conditions. Nine of the patients had had exposure to pigs, five through direct contact and four through visits to a location where pigs were present but without contact. In another patient, human-to-human transmission was suspected. The range of the incubation period, from the last known exposure to the onset of symptoms, was 3 to 9 days. Among the 10 patients with known clinical symptoms, symptoms included fever (in 90%), cough (in 100%), headache (in 60%), and diarrhea (in 30%). Complete blood counts were available for four patients, revealing leukopenia in two, lymphopenia in one, and thrombocytopenia in another. Four patients were hospitalized, two of whom underwent invasive mechanical ventilation. Four patients received oseltamivir, and all 11 recovered from their illness. From December 2005 until just before the current human epidemic of swine-origin influenza viruses, there was sporadic infection with triple-reassortant swine influenza A (H1) viruses in persons with exposure to pigs in the United States. Although all the patients recovered, severe illness of the lower respiratory tract and unusual influenza signs such as diarrhea were observed in some patients, including those who had been previously healthy. 2009 Massachusetts Medical Society
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Immuno-analyse & Biologie Spécialisée
                Elsevier Masson SAS.
                0923-2532
                0923-2532
                12 October 2010
                October-December 2010
                12 October 2010
                : 25
                : 5
                : 241-251
                Affiliations
                ER1 DETIV UPMC, CERVI, service de virologie, groupe hospitalier Pitié-Salpêtrière, 83, boulevard de l’Hôpital, 75651 Paris cedex 13, France
                Author notes
                [* ]Auteur correspondant. henri.agut@ 123456psl.aphp.fr
                Article
                S0923-2532(10)00112-2
                10.1016/j.immbio.2010.09.004
                7148866
                619a07b2-d9f8-443b-8451-eb0755c8bcb4
                Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.

                Since January 2020 Elsevier has created a COVID-19 resource centre with free information in English and Mandarin on the novel coronavirus COVID-19. The COVID-19 resource centre is hosted on Elsevier Connect, the company's public news and information website. Elsevier hereby grants permission to make all its COVID-19-related research that is available on the COVID-19 resource centre - including this research content - immediately available in PubMed Central and other publicly funded repositories, such as the WHO COVID database with rights for unrestricted research re-use and analyses in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for free by Elsevier for as long as the COVID-19 resource centre remains active.

                History
                : 20 August 2010
                : 8 September 2010
                Categories
                Article

                emerging disease,epidemic,pandemic,flu,virological diagnosis,maladie émergente,épidémie,pandémie,grippe,diagnostic virologique

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