Enteric Viruses and Fecal Bacteria Indicators to Assess Groundwater Quality and Suitability for Irrigation

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Abstract

According to Italian Ministerial Decree No. 185 of 12 June 2003, water is considered suitable for irrigation if levels of fecal bacteria (i.e., Escherichia coli and Salmonella) are within certain parameters. The detection of other microorganisms is not required. The aim of this study is to determine the bacteriological quality of groundwater used for irrigation and the occurrence of enteric viruses (Norovirus, Enterovirus, Rotavirus, Hepatovirus A), and to compare the presence of viruses with the fecal bacteria indicators. A total of 182 wells was analyzed. Widespread fecal contamination of Apulian aquifers was detected (141 wells; 77.5%) by the presence of fecal bacteria (i.e., E. coli, Salmonella, total coliforms, and enterococci). Considering bacteria included in Ministerial Decree No. 185, the water from 35 (19.2%) wells was unsuitable for irrigation purposes. Among 147 wells with water considered suitable, Norovirus, Rotavirus, and Enterovirus were detected in 23 (15.6%) wells. No Hepatovirus A was isolated. Consequently, 58 wells (31.9%) posed a potential infectious risk for irrigation use. This study revealed the inadequacy of fecal bacteria indicators to predict the occurrence of viruses in groundwater and it is the first in Italy to describe the presence of human rotaviruses in well water used for irrigation.

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Microbial contamination of fruit and vegetables and the behaviour of enteropathogens in the phyllosphere: a review.

Malcolm K. Jones, Lisa Heaton (2008)

Consumption of fruit and vegetable products is commonly viewed as a potential risk factor for infection with enteropathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli O157, with recent outbreaks linked to lettuce, spinach and tomatoes. Routes of contamination are varied and include application of organic wastes to agricultural land as fertilizer, contamination of waters used for irrigation with faecal material, direct contamination by livestock, wild animals and birds and postharvest issues such as worker hygiene. The ability of pathogens to survive in the field environment has been well studied, leading to the implementation of guidelines such as the Safe Sludge Matrix, which aim to limit the likelihood of viable pathogens remaining at point-of-sale. The behaviour of enteropathogens in the phyllosphere is a growing field of research, and it is suggested that inclusion in phyllosphere biofilms or internalization within the plant augments the survival. Improved knowledge of plant-microbe interactions and the interaction between epiphytic and immigrant micro-organisms on the leaf surface will lead to novel methods to limit enteropathogen survival in the phyllosphere.

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Incidence and Tracking of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in a Major Produce Production Region in California

Michael B. Cooley, Diana Carychao, Leta Crawford-Miksza … (2007)

Fresh vegetables have become associated with outbreaks caused by Escherichia coli O157:H7 (EcO157). Between 1995–2006, 22 produce outbreaks were documented in the United States, with nearly half traced to lettuce or spinach grown in California. Outbreaks between 2002 and 2006 induced investigations of possible sources of pre-harvest contamination on implicated farms in the Salinas and San Juan valleys of California, and a survey of the Salinas watershed. EcO157 was isolated at least once from 15 of 22 different watershed sites over a 19 month period. The incidence of EcO157 increased significantly when heavy rain caused an increased flow rate in the rivers. Approximately 1000 EcO157 isolates obtained from cultures of>100 individual samples were typed using Multi-Locus Variable-number-tandem-repeat Analysis (MLVA) to assist in identifying potential fate and transport of EcO157 in this region. A subset of these environmental isolates were typed by Pulse Field Gel Electrophoresis (PFGE) in order to make comparisons with human clinical isolates associated with outbreak and sporadic illness. Recurrence of identical and closely related EcO157 strains from specific locations in the Salinas and San Juan valleys suggests that transport of the pathogen is usually restricted. In a preliminary study, EcO157 was detected in water at multiple locations in a low-flow creek only within 135 meters of a point source. However, possible transport up to 32 km was detected during periods of higher water flow associated with flooding. During the 2006 baby spinach outbreak investigation, transport was also detected where water was unlikely to be involved. These results indicate that contamination of the environment is a dynamic process involving multiple sources and methods of transport. Intensive studies of the sources, incidence, fate and transport of EcO157 near produce production are required to determine the mechanisms of pre-harvest contamination and potential risks for human illness.

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Irrigation water as source of foodborne pathogens on fruit and vegetables.

Marina Steele, Joseph A Odumeru (2004)

Awareness is growing that fresh or minimally processed fruit and vegetables can be sources of disease-causing bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and helminths. Irrigation with poor-quality water is one way that fruit and vegetables can become contaminated with foodborne pathogens. Groundwater, surface water, and human wastewater are commonly used for irrigation. The risk of disease transmission from pathogenic microorganisms present in irrigation water is influenced by the level of contamination; the persistence of pathogens in water, in soil, and on crops; and the route of exposure. Groundwater is generally of good microbial quality, unless it is contaminated with surface runoff; human wastewater is usually of very poor microbial quality and requires extensive treatment before it can be used safely to irrigate crops; surface water is of variable microbial quality. Bacteria and protozoa tend to show the poorest survival outside a human host, whereas viruses and helminths can remain infective for months to years. Guidelines governing irrigation water quality and strategies to reduce the risk of disease transmission by foodborne pathogens in irrigation are discussed.

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Author and article information

Contributors

Warish Ahmed: Role: Academic Editor

David J. Beale: Role: Academic Editor

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Int J Environ Res Public Health

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Int J Environ Res Public Health

Journal ID (publisher-id): ijerph

Title: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Publisher: MDPI

ISSN (Print): 1661-7827

ISSN (Electronic): 1660-4601

Publication date (Electronic): 24 May 2017

Publication date (Print): June 2017

Volume: 14

Issue: 6

Electronic Location Identifier: 558

Affiliations

[1 ]Department of Biomedical Science and Human Oncology, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Piazza G. Cesare 11, 70124 Bari, Italy; giuseppina.caggiano@ 123456uniba.it (G.C.); giovanna.barbuti@ 123456uniba.it (G.B.); mariateresa.montagna@ 123456uniba.it (M.T.M.)

[2 ]Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences and Technologies, University of Salento, Via per Monteroni, Campus Ecotekne, Monteroni di Lecce, 73047 Lecce, Italy; francesco.bagordo@ 123456unisalento.it (F.B.); federicalugoli@ 123456tiscali.it (F.L.); tiziana.grassi@ 123456unisalento.it (T.G.); antonella.dedonno@ 123456unisalento.it (A.D.D.)

[3 ]Water Research Institute, National Research Council, Viale Francesco de Blasio 5, 70132 Bari, Italy; silvia.brigida@ 123456ba.irsa.cnr.it (S.B.); vito.uricchio@ 123456ba.irsa.cnr.it (V.F.U.)

[4 ]National Institute of Health, Department of Environment and Health, Viale Regina Elena 299, 00100 Rome, Italy; giuseppina.larosa@ 123456iss.it (G.L.R.); luca.lucentini@ 123456iss.it (L.L.)

Author notes

[* ]Correspondence: osvalda.degiglio@ 123456uniba.it ; Tel.: +39-080-5478-476

Article

Publisher ID: ijerph-14-00558

DOI: 10.3390/ijerph14060558

PMC ID: 5486244

PubMed ID: 28538682

SO-VID: 61c9a0c3-2acd-46a5-a220-3570fb3f26b9

License:

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

History

Date received : 25 March 2017

Date accepted : 22 May 2017

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Enteric Viruses and Fecal Bacteria Indicators to Assess Groundwater Quality and Suitability for Irrigation

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Abstract

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Relationship between water quality, sanitation quality, and food security to public health

Most cited references 50

Microbial contamination of fruit and vegetables and the behaviour of enteropathogens in the phyllosphere: a review.

Incidence and Tracking of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in a Major Produce Production Region in California

Irrigation water as source of foodborne pathogens on fruit and vegetables.

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Cited by 12

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