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      Upper limb amputees can be induced to experience a rubber hand as their own

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          Abstract

          We describe how upper limb amputees can be made to experience a rubber hand as part of their own body. This was accomplished by applying synchronous touches to the stump, which was out of view, and to the index finger of a rubber hand, placed in full view (26 cm medial to the stump). This elicited an illusion of sensing touch on the artificial hand, rather than on the stump and a feeling of ownership of the rubber hand developed. This effect was supported by quantitative subjective reports in the form of questionnaires, behavioural data in the form of misreaching in a pointing task when asked to localize the position of the touch, and physiological evidence obtained by skin conductance responses when threatening the hand prosthesis. Our findings outline a simple method for transferring tactile sensations from the stump to a prosthetic limb by tricking the brain, thereby making an important contribution to the field of neuroprosthetics where a major goal is to develop artificial limbs that feel like a real parts of the body.

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          Brain-machine interfaces: past, present and future.

          Mikhail Lebedev, Miguel Nicolelis (2006)
          Since the original demonstration that electrical activity generated by ensembles of cortical neurons can be employed directly to control a robotic manipulator, research on brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) has experienced an impressive growth. Today BMIs designed for both experimental and clinical studies can translate raw neuronal signals into motor commands that reproduce arm reaching and hand grasping movements in artificial actuators. Clearly, these developments hold promise for the restoration of limb mobility in paralyzed subjects. However, as we review here, before this goal can be reached several bottlenecks have to be passed. These include designing a fully implantable biocompatible recording device, further developing real-time computational algorithms, introducing a method for providing the brain with sensory feedback from the actuators, and designing and building artificial prostheses that can be controlled directly by brain-derived signals. By reaching these milestones, future BMIs will be able to drive and control revolutionary prostheses that feel and act like the human arm.
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            Touching a rubber hand: feeling of body ownership is associated with activity in multisensory brain areas.

            H. Ehrsson, Nicholas P Holmes, Richard E. Passingham (2005)
            In the "rubber-hand illusion," the sight of brushing of a rubber hand at the same time as brushing of the person's own hidden hand is sufficient to produce a feeling of ownership of the fake hand. We shown previously that this illusion is associated with activity in the multisensory areas, most notably the ventral premotor cortex (Ehrsson et al., 2004). However, it remains to be demonstrated that this illusion does not simply reflect the dominant role of vision and that the premotor activity does not reflect a visual representation of an object near the hand. To address these issues, we introduce a somatic rubber-hand illusion. The experimenter moved the blindfolded participant's left index finger so that it touched the fake hand, and simultaneously, he touched the participant's real right hand, synchronizing the touches as perfectly as possible. After approximately 9.7 s, this stimulation elicited an illusion that one was touching one's own hand. We scanned brain activity during this illusion and two control conditions, using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Activity in the ventral premotor cortices, intraparietal cortices, and the cerebellum was associated with the illusion of touching one's own hand. Furthermore, the rated strength of the illusion correlated with the degree of premotor and cerebellar activity. This finding suggests that the activity in these areas reflects the detection of congruent multisensory signals from one's own body, rather than of visual representations. We propose that this could be the mechanism for the feeling of body ownership.
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              Phantom limb pain: a case of maladaptive CNS plasticity?

              Herta Flor, Lone Nikolajsen, Troels Staehelin Jensen (2006)
              Phantom pain refers to pain in a body part that has been amputated or deafferented. It has often been viewed as a type of mental disorder or has been assumed to stem from pathological alterations in the region of the amputation stump. In the past decade, evidence has accumulated that phantom pain might be a phenomenon of the CNS that is related to plastic changes at several levels of the neuraxis and especially the cortex. Here, we discuss the evidence for putative pathophysiological mechanisms with an emphasis on central, and in particular cortical, changes. We cite both animal and human studies and derive suggestions for innovative interventions aimed at alleviating phantom pain.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Brain
                Journal ID (publisher-id): brainj
                Journal ID (hwp): brain
                Title: Brain
                Publisher: Oxford University Press
                ISSN (Print): 0006-8950
                ISSN (Electronic): 1460-2156
                Publication date (Print): December 2008
                Publication date (Electronic): 11 December 2008
                Publication date PMC-release: 11 December 2008
                Volume: 131
                Issue: 12
                Pages: 3443-3452
                Affiliations
                1Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, SE-171 77 Stockholm, 2Department of Hand Surgery, Malmö University Hospital, SE-20502 Malmö and 3Arm Prothesis Unit, the Red Cross Hospital, 102 16 Stockholm, Sweden
                Author notes
                Correspondence to: Dr H. Henrik Ehrsson, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden E-mail: Henrik.Ehrsson@ 123456ki.se
                Article
                Publisher ID: awn297
                DOI: 10.1093/brain/awn297
                PMC ID: 2639202
                PubMed ID: 19074189
                SO-VID: 6291cd20-6be1-4a88-9371-e48939959198
                Copyright © © 2008 The Author(s)
                License:

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/uk/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 31 May 2008
                Date revision received : 19 October 2008
                Date accepted : 20 October 2008
                Categories
                Subject: Original Articles

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Neurosciences
                Keywords: referred sensation,limb ownership,illusion,plasticity,body representation,prosthetics
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Neurosciences
                Keywords: referred sensation, limb ownership, illusion, plasticity, body representation, prosthetics

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