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      Influenza-associated thrombotic microangiopathies

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          Abstract

          Thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) refers to phenotypically similar disorders, including hemolytic uremic syndromes (HUS) and thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura (TTP). This review explores the role of the influenza virus as trigger of HUS or TTP. We conducted a literature survey in PubMed and Google Scholar using HUS, TTP, TMA, and influenza as keywords, and extracted and analyzed reported epidemiological and clinical data. We identified 25 cases of influenza-associated TMA. Five additional cases were linked to influenza vaccination and analyzed separately. Influenza A was found in 83%, 10 out of 25 during the 2009 A(H1N1) pandemic. Two patients had bona fide TTP with ADAMTS13 activity <10%. Median age was 15 years (range 0.5–68 years), two thirds were male. Oligoanuria was documented in 81% and neurological involvement in 40% of patients. Serum C3 was reduced in 5 out of 14 patients (36%); Coombs test was negative in 7 out of 7 and elevated fibrin/fibrinogen degradation products were documented in 6 out of 8 patients. Pathogenic complement gene mutations were found in 7 out of 8 patients tested (C3, MCP, or MCP combined with CFB or clusterin). Twenty out of 24 patients recovered completely, but 3 died (12%). Ten of the surviving patients underwent plasma exchange (PLEX) therapy, 5 plasma infusions. Influenza-mediated HUS or TTP is rare. A sizable proportion of tested patients demonstrated mutations associated with alternative pathway of complement dysregulation that was uncovered by this infection. Further research is warranted targeting the roles of viral neuraminidase, enhanced virus-induced complement activation and/or ADAMTS13 antibodies, and rational treatment approaches.

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          The online version of this article (10.1007/s00467-017-3783-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users

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          Most cited references85

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          Updating the accounts: global mortality of the 1918-1920 "Spanish" influenza pandemic.

          The influenza pandemic of 1918-20 is recognized as having generally taken place in three waves, starting in the northern spring and summer of 1918. This pattern of three waves, however, was not universal: in some locations influenza seems to have persisted into or returned in 1920. The recorded statistics of influenza morbidity and mortality are likely to be a significant understatement. Limitations of these data can include nonregistration, missing records, misdiagnosis, and nonmedical certification, and may also vary greatly between locations. Further research has seen the consistent upward revision of the estimated global mortality of the pandemic, which a 1920s calculation put in the vicinity of 21.5 million. A 1991 paper revised the mortality as being in the range 24.7-39.3 million. This paper suggests that it was of the order of 50 million. However, it must be acknowledged that even this vast figure may be substantially lower than the real toll, perhaps as much as 100 percent understated.
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            Insights into the interaction between influenza virus and pneumococcus.

            Bacterial infections following influenza are an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Based on the historical importance of pneumonia as a cause of death during pandemic influenza, the increasingly likely possibility that highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses will trigger the next worldwide pandemic underscores the need to understand the multiple mechanisms underlying the interaction between influenza virus and bacterial pathogens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae. There is ample evidence to support the historical view that influenza virus alters the lungs in a way that predisposes to adherence, invasion, and induction of disease by pneumococcus. Access to receptors is a key factor and may be facilitated by the virus through epithelial damage, by exposure or up-regulation of receptors, or by provoking the epithelial regeneration response to cytotoxic damage. More recent data indicate that alteration of the immune response by diminishing the ability of the host to clear pneumococcus or by amplification of the inflammatory cascade is another key factor. Identification and exploration of the underlying mechanisms responsible for this synergism will provide targets for prevention and treatment using drugs and vaccines.
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              Haemolytic uraemic syndrome

              Haemolytic uraemic syndrome is a form of thrombotic microangiopathy affecting predominantly the kidney and characterised by a triad of thrombocytopenia, mechanical haemolytic anaemia, and acute kidney injury. The term encompasses several disorders: shiga toxin-induced and pneumococcus-induced haemolytic uraemic syndrome, haemolytic uraemic syndrome associated with complement dysregulation or mutation of diacylglycerol kinase ɛ, haemolytic uraemic syndrome related to cobalamin C defect, and haemolytic uraemic syndrome secondary to a heterogeneous group of causes (infections, drugs, cancer, and systemic diseases). In the past two decades, experimental, genetic, and clinical studies have helped to decipher the pathophysiology of these various forms of haemolytic uraemic syndrome and undoubtedly improved diagnostic approaches. Moreover, a specific mechanism-based treatment has been made available for patients affected by atypical haemolytic uraemic syndrome due to complement dysregulation. Such treatment is, however, still absent for several other disease types, including shiga toxin-induced haemolytic uraemic syndrome.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                +1 514 412-4461 , martin.bitzan@mcgill.ca
                Journal
                Pediatr Nephrol
                Pediatr. Nephrol
                Pediatric Nephrology (Berlin, Germany)
                Springer Berlin Heidelberg (Berlin/Heidelberg )
                0931-041X
                1432-198X
                7 September 2017
                7 September 2017
                2018
                : 33
                : 11
                : 2009-2025
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000 0000 9064 4811, GRID grid.63984.30, Division of Nephrology, The Montreal Children’s Hospital, , McGill University Health Centre, ; 1001, boul. Décarie—Room B RC.6651, Montréal, QC H4A 3J1 Canada
                [2 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1937 116X, GRID grid.4491.8, Department of Pediatric Nephrology, 2nd Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital Motol, , Charles University, ; Prague, Czech Republic
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7472-6950
                Article
                3783
                10.1007/s00467-017-3783-4
                6153504
                28884355
                6506a9b6-a907-462b-b359-5244413b3e83
                © The Author(s) 2017

                Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

                History
                : 13 May 2017
                : 11 July 2017
                : 8 August 2017
                Categories
                Review
                Custom metadata
                © IPNA 2018

                Nephrology
                hemolytic uremic syndrome,thrombotic-thrombocytopenic purpura,complement,adamts13,plasma exchange,neuraminidase,influenza vaccine

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