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      Spatiotemporal Overlap between the European Brown Hare and Its Potential Predators and Competitors

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          Abstract

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          Predator-prey relationships and competition shape interspecific coexistence in wildlife communities. So far, most published studies have focused on large carnivores and their prey, whereas little is known about medium and small-sized mammal communities. The European brown hare Lepus europaeus is a widespread species in Europe and is part of the diet of many birds of prey and mammalian carnivores of all sizes. Furthermore, competition with other herbivorous mammals at feeding sites has also been suggested. In an area in Central Italy, we have assessed spatiotemporal overlap among brown hare and its potential predators (red fox Vulpes vulpes, pine marten Martes martes, domestic cat Felis catus, and domestic dog Canis familiaris) and a competitor (roe deer Capreolus capreolus). We showed that, outside a fenced area excluding predators and competitors, brown hares become more nocturnal and more active on dark nights to limit encounters with predators, and that they adopt spatial partitioning to avoid competitors, as expected by ecological theory.

          Abstract

          Analysis of spatiotemporal partitioning is pivotal to shed light on interspecific coexistence. Most research effort has involved large-sized carnivores and their prey, whereas little attention has been devoted to lagomorphs. We assessed spatiotemporal overlap among the European brown hare Lepus europaeus and its potential competitors and predators through camera-trapping in an area in Central Italy. We estimated the interspecific patterns of the spatiotemporal activity rhythms of brown hares, its potential predators (the red fox Vulpes vulpes, the pine marten Martes martes, the domestic cat Felis catus, and the domestic dog Canis familiaris), and a competitor, the roe deer Capreolus capreolus. Brown hare activity was studied in natural conditions as well as in a fenced area that excluded terrestrial predators and competitors. Free-ranging hares developed a more nocturnal behavior to avoid diurnal predators (i.e., domestic carnivores and martens). Although high temporal overlap was observed between free-ranging brown hares and both red foxes (82%) and roe deer (81%), hares avoided fox by being more active on darkest nights, as well as avoided roe deer through spatial partitioning. We suggest that hares may adapt their spatiotemporal behavior to avoid potential predators and competitors.

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          Mechanisms of Maintenance of Species Diversity

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            Behavioral decisions made under the risk of predation: a review and prospectus

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              Fear of the dark or dinner by moonlight? Reduced temporal partitioning among Africa's large carnivores.

              Africa is home to the last intact guild of large carnivores and thus provides the only opportunity to investigate mechanisms of coexistence among large predator species. Strong asymmetric dominance hierarchies typically characterize guilds of large carnivores; but despite this asymmetry, subdominant species may persist alongside their stronger counterparts through temporal partitioning of habitat and resources. In the African guild, the subdominant African wild dogs and cheetahs are routinely described as diurnal and crepuscular. These activity patterns have been interpreted to result from the need to avoid encounters with the stronger, nocturnal spotted hyenas and lions. However, the idea that diel activity patterns of carnivore species are strongly shaped by competition and predation has recently been challenged by new observations. In a three-year study in the Okavango Delta, we investigated daily activity patterns and temporal partitioning for wild dogs, cheetahs, spotted hyenas and lions by fitting radio collars that continuously recorded activity bursts, to a total of 25 individuals. Analysis of activity patterns throughout the 24-h cycle revealed an unexpectedly high degree of temporal overlap among the four species. This was mainly due to the extensive and previously undescribed nocturnal activity of wild dogs and cheetahs. Their nocturnal activity fluctuated with the lunar cycle, represented up to 40% of the diel activity budget and was primarily constrained by moonlight availability. In contrast, the nocturnal activity patterns of lions and hyenas were unaffected by moonlight and remained constant over the lunar cycle. Our results suggest that other ecological factors such as optimal hunting conditions have shaped the diel activity patterns of subdominant, large predators. We suggest that they are "starvation driven" and must exploit every opportunity to obtain a meal. The benefits of activity on moonlit nights therefore offset the risks of encountering night-active predators and competitors.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Animals (Basel)
                Animals (Basel)
                animals
                Animals : an Open Access Journal from MDPI
                MDPI
                2076-2615
                21 February 2021
                February 2021
                : 11
                : 2
                : 562
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Università degli Studi di Pisa, 56124 Pisa, Italy; a.viviano@ 123456studenti.unipi.it
                [2 ]Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto di Ricerca sugli Ecosistemi Terrestri, Via Madonna del Piano 10, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy
                [3 ]Dipartimento di Scienze Ambientali e Politiche–ESP, Università di Milano, 20133 Milano, Italy; niccolo.fattorini@ 123456gmail.com
                [4 ]CREA Research Centre for Plant Protection and Certification, Cascine del Riccio, 50125 Firenze, Italy; giuseppe.mazza@ 123456crea.gov.it
                [5 ]Dipartimento di Scienze della Vita, Università di Siena, 53100 Siena, Italy; lazzerilorenzo12@ 123456gmail.com
                [6 ]Dipartimento di Biologia, dell’Università di Firenze, 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy; alessandra.panichi@ 123456stud.unifi.it
                [7 ]Associazione Nazionale Libera Caccia, 58100 Grosseto, Italy; info@ 123456elettronicastrianese.com
                [8 ]Department of Biological and Geological Sciences, Faculty of Education, Ain Shams University, Roxy, Cairo 11566, Egypt; walidfathy2021@ 123456gmail.com
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: emiliano.mori@ 123456cnr.it
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2970-3389
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8108-7950
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8022-7464
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6644-1429
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9556-6204
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2028-4568
                Article
                animals-11-00562
                10.3390/ani11020562
                7924828
                6c8f9335-460a-449f-930c-1c0bb8fcf7e6
                © 2021 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 28 January 2021
                : 18 February 2021
                Categories
                Article

                activity rhythms,camera-traps,lepus europaeus,moonlight avoidance,niche partitioning,spatiotemporal behavior,predator–prey systems

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