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      The Post-verbal Effect of Negators in Mongolian Contradictory Negations Provides Support for the Fusion Model

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          Abstract

          There are two contending models regarding the processing of negation: the fusion model and the schema-plus-tag model. Most previous studies have centered on negation in languages such as English and Mandarin, where negators are positioned before predicates. Mongolian, quite uniquely, is a language whose negators are post-verbal, making them natural replicas of the schema-plus-tag model. The present study aims to investigate the representation process of Mongolian contradictory negative sentences to shed light on the debate between the models, meanwhile verifying the post-verbal effect of negators. A series of experiments using the sentence–picture verification paradigm supports the fusion model: (i) Mongolian contradictory negative sentences were processed by representing the actual conditions rather than the negated state of affairs at 250 ISI (interstimulus interval of 250 ms), and (ii) despite the fact that a post-verbal effect of negators was measured at 250 ISI when Mongolian and Mandarin negative sentences were compared, Mongolian–Mandarin bilinguals adopted the same representational strategy for contradictory negation in both languages.

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          Thirty years and counting: finding meaning in the N400 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP).

          We review the discovery, characterization, and evolving use of the N400, an event-related brain potential response linked to meaning processing. We describe the elicitation of N400s by an impressive range of stimulus types--including written, spoken, and signed words or pseudowords; drawings, photos, and videos of faces, objects, and actions; sounds; and mathematical symbols--and outline the sensitivity of N400 amplitude (as its latency is remarkably constant) to linguistic and nonlinguistic manipulations. We emphasize the effectiveness of the N400 as a dependent variable for examining almost every aspect of language processing and highlight its expanding use to probe semantic memory and to determine how the neurocognitive system dynamically and flexibly uses bottom-up and top-down information to make sense of the world. We conclude with different theories of the N400's functional significance and offer an N400-inspired reconceptualization of how meaning processing might unfold.
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            Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects

            The time required to recognize that two perspective drawings portray objects of the same three-dimensional shape is found to be (i) a linearly increasing function of the angular difference in the portrayed orientations of the two objects and (ii) no shorter for differences corresponding simply to a rigid rotation of one of the two-dimensional drawings in its own picture plane than for differences corresponding to a rotation of the three-dimensional object in depth.
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              Functional links between motor and language systems.

              Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was applied to motor areas in the left language-dominant hemisphere while right-handed human subjects made lexical decisions on words related to actions. Response times to words referring to leg actions (e.g. kick) were compared with those to words referring to movements involving the arms and hands (e.g. pick). TMS of hand and leg areas influenced the processing of arm and leg words differentially, as documented by a significant interaction of the factors Stimulation site and Word category. Arm area TMS led to faster arm than leg word responses and the reverse effect, faster lexical decisions on leg than arm words, was present when TMS was applied to leg areas. TMS-related differences between word categories were not seen in control conditions, when TMS was applied to hand and leg areas in the right hemisphere and during sham stimulation. Our results show that the left hemispheric cortical systems for language and action are linked to each other in a category-specific manner and that activation in motor and premotor areas can influence the processing of specific kinds of words semantically related to arm or leg actions. By demonstrating specific functional links between action and language systems during lexical processing, these results call into question modular theories of language and motor functions and provide evidence that the two systems interact in the processing of meaningful information about language and action.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Psychol
                Front Psychol
                Front. Psychol.
                Frontiers in Psychology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-1078
                20 May 2021
                2021
                : 12
                : 603075
                Affiliations
                [1] 1The Key Laboratory of Psychology, Inner Mongolia Normal University , Hohhot, China
                [2] 2School of Psychology, Inner Mongolia Normal University , Hohhot, China
                [3] 3School of Foreign Languages, Yulin University , Yulin, China
                [4] 4Baotou Municipal Party School , Baotou, China
                [5] 5Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Science , Beijing, China
                Author notes

                Edited by: Dieter Hillert, San Diego State University, United States

                Reviewed by: Roberto Ramírez Heredia, Texas A&M International University, United States; Brendan Costello, Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, Spain

                *Correspondence: Jie Li healthlj2004@ 123456163.com

                This article was submitted to Language Sciences, a section of the journal Frontiers in Psychology

                †These authors share first authorship

                Article
                10.3389/fpsyg.2021.603075
                8173153
                70f1791d-d18e-4d92-9559-0b91324e58fe
                Copyright © 2021 Xu, Zhang, Li, Wu, Qiu and Qilimuge.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 05 September 2020
                : 24 March 2021
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 4, Equations: 0, References: 51, Pages: 12, Words: 9195
                Funding
                Funded by: National Natural Science Foundation of China 10.13039/501100001809
                Categories
                Psychology
                Original Research

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                contradictory negation,mongolian-mandarin bilingual,post-position effect,fusion model,schema-plus-tag model

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