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      Coral restoration – A systematic review of current methods, successes, failures and future directions

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          Abstract

          Coral reef ecosystems have suffered an unprecedented loss of habitat-forming hard corals in recent decades. While marine conservation has historically focused on passive habitat protection, demand for and interest in active restoration has been growing in recent decades. However, a disconnect between coral restoration practitioners, coral reef managers and scientists has resulted in a disjointed field where it is difficult to gain an overview of existing knowledge. To address this, we aimed to synthesise the available knowledge in a comprehensive global review of coral restoration methods, incorporating data from the peer-reviewed scientific literature, complemented with grey literature and through a survey of coral restoration practitioners. We found that coral restoration case studies are dominated by short-term projects, with 60% of all projects reporting less than 18 months of monitoring of the restored sites. Similarly, most projects are relatively small in spatial scale, with a median size of restored area of 100 m 2. A diverse range of species are represented in the dataset, with 229 different species from 72 coral genera. Overall, coral restoration projects focused primarily on fast-growing branching corals (59% of studies), and report survival between 60 and 70%. To date, the relatively young field of coral restoration has been plagued by similar ‘growing pains’ as ecological restoration in other ecosystems. These include 1) a lack of clear and achievable objectives, 2) a lack of appropriate and standardised monitoring and reporting and, 3) poorly designed projects in relation to stated objectives. Mitigating these will be crucial to successfully scale up projects, and to retain public trust in restoration as a tool for resilience based management. Finally, while it is clear that practitioners have developed effective methods to successfully grow corals at small scales, it is critical not to view restoration as a replacement for meaningful action on climate change.

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          How much more global warming and sea level rise?

          Two global coupled climate models show that even if the concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere had been stabilized in the year 2000, we are already committed to further global warming of about another half degree and an additional 320% sea level rise caused by thermal expansion by the end of the 21st century. Projected weakening of the meridional overturning circulation in the North Atlantic Ocean does not lead to a net cooling in Europe. At any given point in time, even if concentrations are stabilized, there is a commitment to future climate changes that will be greater than those we have already observed.
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            Shifting paradigms in restoration of the world's coral reefs

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              CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS FROM THE GLOBAL CEMENT INDUSTRY

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: ResourcesRole: SoftwareRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: InvestigationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                30 January 2020
                2020
                : 15
                : 1
                : e0226631
                Affiliations
                [1 ] TropWATER, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld, Australia
                [2 ] Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Brisbane, Qld, Australia
                [3 ] University of Queensland, Brisbane, Qld, Australia
                [4 ] Marine Ecology Consultant, Magnetic Island, Qld, Australia
                [5 ] Reef Ecologic, Townsville, Qld, Australia
                [6 ] Future Earth Coasts, Leibniz Centre for Tropical Marine Research (ZMT), Bremen, Germany
                [7 ] Marine Ecology Department, Faculty of Biology and Chemistry (FB2), University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
                [8 ] The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, United States of America
                [9 ] Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, Australia
                [10 ] University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
                [11 ] ECS for NOAA Fisheries, Office of Science & Technology, Silver Spring, MD, United States of America
                Universita degli Studi di Genova, ITALY
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4814-9552
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0930-5356
                Article
                PONE-D-19-28497
                10.1371/journal.pone.0226631
                6992220
                31999709
                718e7536-db7e-45ae-b60d-315710c60833

                This is an open access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

                History
                : 3 November 2019
                : 6 November 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 3, Tables: 1, Pages: 24
                Funding
                This project was supported by the National Environmental Science Programme Tropical Water Quality Hub (NESP TWQ) to LBE, IMM, MH, DC, NC and AS, and the Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program (RRAP) to LBE and IMM through the Centre for Tropical Water and Aquatic Ecosystem Research (TropWATER) at James Cook University (JCU). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Coral Reefs
                Earth Sciences
                Marine and Aquatic Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Coral Reefs
                Earth Sciences
                Marine and Aquatic Sciences
                Reefs
                Coral Reefs
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Corals
                Earth Sciences
                Marine and Aquatic Sciences
                Marine Biology
                Corals
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Ecology
                Ecosystems
                Reef Ecosystems
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Ecology
                Ecosystems
                Reef Ecosystems
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Conservation Biology
                Endangered Species
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Conservation Science
                Conservation Biology
                Endangered Species
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Research Design
                Survey Research
                Surveys
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Developmental Biology
                Life Cycles
                Larvae
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Research Assessment
                Peer Review
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Conservation Biology
                Conservation Genetics
                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Conservation Science
                Conservation Biology
                Conservation Genetics
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Genetics
                Conservation Genetics
                Custom metadata
                Survey data cannot be shared publicly to ensure anonymity of respondents. The remaining database is available from the Dryad Digital Repository: https://doi.org/10.5061/dryad.p6r3816.

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                Uncategorized

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