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      Physiological plasticity and local adaptation to elevated pCO 2 in calcareous algae: an ontogenetic and geographic approach

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          Abstract

          To project how ocean acidification will impact biological communities in the future, it is critical to understand the potential for local adaptation and the physiological plasticity of marine organisms throughout their entire life cycle, as some stages may be more vulnerable than others. Coralline algae are ecosystem engineers that play significant functional roles in oceans worldwide and are considered vulnerable to ocean acidification. Using different stages of coralline algae, we tested the hypothesis that populations living in environments with higher environmental variability and exposed to higher levels of pCO 2 would be less affected by high pCO 2 than populations from a more stable environment experiencing lower levels of pCO 2. Our results show that spores are less sensitive to elevated pCO 2 than adults. Spore growth and mortality were not affected by pCO 2 level; however, elevated pCO 2 negatively impacted the physiology and growth rates of adults, with stronger effects in populations that experienced both lower levels of pCO 2 and lower variability in carbonate chemistry, suggesting local adaptation. Differences in physiological plasticity and the potential for adaptation could have important implications for the ecological and evolutionary responses of coralline algae to future environmental changes.

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          Most cited references20

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          Ocean acidification causes bleaching and productivity loss in coral reef builders.

          Ocean acidification represents a key threat to coral reefs by reducing the calcification rate of framework builders. In addition, acidification is likely to affect the relationship between corals and their symbiotic dinoflagellates and the productivity of this association. However, little is known about how acidification impacts on the physiology of reef builders and how acidification interacts with warming. Here, we report on an 8-week study that compared bleaching, productivity, and calcification responses of crustose coralline algae (CCA) and branching (Acropora) and massive (Porites) coral species in response to acidification and warming. Using a 30-tank experimental system, we manipulated CO(2) levels to simulate doubling and three- to fourfold increases [Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) projection categories IV and VI] relative to present-day levels under cool and warm scenarios. Results indicated that high CO(2) is a bleaching agent for corals and CCA under high irradiance, acting synergistically with warming to lower thermal bleaching thresholds. We propose that CO(2) induces bleaching via its impact on photoprotective mechanisms of the photosystems. Overall, acidification impacted more strongly on bleaching and productivity than on calcification. Interestingly, the intermediate, warm CO(2) scenario led to a 30% increase in productivity in Acropora, whereas high CO(2) lead to zero productivity in both corals. CCA were most sensitive to acidification, with high CO(2) leading to negative productivity and high rates of net dissolution. Our findings suggest that sensitive reef-building species such as CCA may be pushed beyond their thresholds for growth and survival within the next few decades whereas corals will show delayed and mixed responses.
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            Geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs

            A coral reef represents the net accumulation of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) produced by corals and other calcifying organisms. If calcification declines, then reef-building capacity also declines. Coral reef calcification depends on the saturation state of the carbonate mineral aragonite of surface waters. By the middle of the next century, an increased concentration of carbon dioxide will decrease the aragonite saturation state in the tropics by 30 percent and biogenic aragonite precipitation by 14 to 30 percent. Coral reefs are particularly threatened, because reef-building organisms secrete metastable forms of CaCO3, but the biogeochemical consequences on other calcifying marine ecosystems may be equally severe.
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              Climate change and ocean acidification effects on seagrasses and marine macroalgae.

              Although seagrasses and marine macroalgae (macro-autotrophs) play critical ecological roles in reef, lagoon, coastal and open-water ecosystems, their response to ocean acidification (OA) and climate change is not well understood. In this review, we examine marine macro-autotroph biochemistry and physiology relevant to their response to elevated dissolved inorganic carbon [DIC], carbon dioxide [CO2 ], and lower carbonate [CO3 (2-) ] and pH. We also explore the effects of increasing temperature under climate change and the interactions of elevated temperature and [CO2 ]. Finally, recommendations are made for future research based on this synthesis. A literature review of >100 species revealed that marine macro-autotroph photosynthesis is overwhelmingly C3 (≥ 85%) with most species capable of utilizing HCO3 (-) ; however, most are not saturated at current ocean [DIC]. These results, and the presence of CO2 -only users, lead us to conclude that photosynthetic and growth rates of marine macro-autotrophs are likely to increase under elevated [CO2 ] similar to terrestrial C3 species. In the tropics, many species live close to their thermal limits and will have to up-regulate stress-response systems to tolerate sublethal temperature exposures with climate change, whereas elevated [CO2 ] effects on thermal acclimation are unknown. Fundamental linkages between elevated [CO2 ] and temperature on photorespiration, enzyme systems, carbohydrate production, and calcification dictate the need to consider these two parameters simultaneously. Relevant to calcifiers, elevated [CO2 ] lowers net calcification and this effect is amplified by high temperature. Although the mechanisms are not clear, OA likely disrupts diffusion and transport systems of H(+) and DIC. These fluxes control micro-environments that promote calcification over dissolution and may be more important than CaCO3 mineralogy in predicting macroalgal responses to OA. Calcareous macroalgae are highly vulnerable to OA, and it is likely that fleshy macroalgae will dominate in a higher CO2 ocean; therefore, it is critical to elucidate the research gaps identified in this review. © 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                jpgamino@uw.edu
                Journal
                Evol Appl
                Evol Appl
                10.1111/(ISSN)1752-4571
                EVA
                Evolutionary Applications
                John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Hoboken )
                1752-4571
                28 September 2016
                October 2016
                : 9
                : 9 , Transgenerational Plasticity, Epigenetics and the Evolution of Marine Species Under Global Change ( doiID: 10.1111/eva.2016.9.issue-9 )
                : 1043-1053
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ] School of Aquatic and Fishery SciencesUniversity of Washington Seattle WAUSA
                [ 2 ] Department of BiologyCalifornia State University Dominguez Hills Carson CAUSA
                [ 3 ] Instituto de Ciencias Ambientales y Evolutivas Facultad de CienciasUniversidad Austral de Chile ValdiviaChile
                [ 4 ]CSIRO Oceans and Atmosphere Hobart TASAustralia
                [ 5 ] Department of Biological SciencesLouisiana State University Baton Rouge LAUSA
                [ 6 ] Ecology, Evolution and Marine BiologyUniversity of California, Santa Barbara Santa Barbara CAUSA
                Author notes
                [*] [* ] Correspondence

                Jacqueline L. Padilla‐Gamiño, School of Aquatic and Fishery Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.

                Email: jpgamino@ 123456uw.edu

                [†]

                These authors contributed equally.

                Article
                EVA12411
                10.1111/eva.12411
                5039319
                71cd8e03-9910-43f8-902a-8ad60ec6537a
                © 2016 The Authors. Evolutionary Applications published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

                This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 04 November 2015
                : 13 July 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 5, Tables: 2, Pages: 11, Words: 10309
                Funding
                Funded by: NSF
                Award ID: IOS‐1021536
                Funded by: OCE
                Award ID: 1040960
                Funded by: University of California
                Funded by: Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico
                Award ID: 3130381
                Funded by: RSCA Fellowship
                Funded by: Faculty Scholar Award from CSUDH
                Categories
                Original Article
                Original Articles
                Custom metadata
                2.0
                eva12411
                October 2016
                Converter:WILEY_ML3GV2_TO_NLMPMC version:4.9.4 mode:remove_FC converted:28.09.2016

                Evolutionary Biology
                california,life‐history stages,local adaptation,ocean acidification,photosynthesis,physiological plasticity,spore,upwelling

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