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      Suicide Ideation and Attempts among First Nations Peoples Living On-Reserve in Canada: The Intergenerational and Cumulative Effects of Indian Residential Schools

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          Abstract

          <div class="section"> <a class="named-anchor" id="d2588365e169"> <!-- named anchor --> </a> <h5 class="section-title" id="d2588365e170">Objective:</h5> <p id="d2588365e172">Suicide rates among Indigenous peoples in Canada are at least twice that of their non-Indigenous counterparts. Although contemporary stressors contribute to this increased risk, historical experiences such as the Indian Residential School (IRS) system may also have continuing links with the risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors. The current investigation examined the intergenerational and cumulative links between familial IRS attendance in relation to lifetime suicide ideation and attempts among First Nations adults living on-reserve. </p> </div><div class="section"> <a class="named-anchor" id="d2588365e174"> <!-- named anchor --> </a> <h5 class="section-title" id="d2588365e175">Method:</h5> <p id="d2588365e177">Data from the 2008-2010 First Nations Regional Health Survey were analyzed, and participants comprised a representative sample of First Nations adults older than 18 years (weighted <i>N</i> = 127,338; IRS attendees were excluded). Of those who knew their familial IRS history, 38.0% had no history of attendance, 19.3% had a grandparent who attended, 16.2% had a parent who attended, and 26.5% had a parent and grandparent who attended. </p> </div><div class="section"> <a class="named-anchor" id="d2588365e182"> <!-- named anchor --> </a> <h5 class="section-title" id="d2588365e183">Results:</h5> <p id="d2588365e185">Exposure of one previous familial generation to the IRS experience was associated with increased risk for lifetime suicide ideation (odds ratio [OR], 1.46; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.16 to 1.84; <i>P</i> = 0.001) and attempts (OR, 1.44; 95% CI, 1.07 to 1.94; <i>P</i> &lt; 0.016) compared with those with no IRS history. Having 2 generations of IRS familial history was associated with greater odds of reporting a suicide attempt compared with having one generation (OR, 1.35; 95% CI, 1.05 to 1.75; <i>P</i> = 0.022), which was reduced when current levels of distress and ideation were accounted for. </p> </div><div class="section"> <a class="named-anchor" id="d2588365e196"> <!-- named anchor --> </a> <h5 class="section-title" id="d2588365e197">Conclusion:</h5> <p id="d2588365e199">Findings support the existence of linkages between intergenerational exposure to IRS and risk for suicidal ideation and attempts and for a potential cumulative risk in relation to suicide attempts across generations. </p> </div><div class="section"> <a class="named-anchor" id="d2588365e202"> <!-- named anchor --> </a>Objectif: <p id="d2588365e205">Les taux de suicide chez les peuples autochtones du Canada sont au moins le double de ceux de leurs homologues non autochtones. Bien que les stresseurs contemporains contribuent à ce risque accru, les expériences historiques comme le système des pensionnats indiens (PI) peuvent aussi avoir des liens continus avec le risque d’idées et de comportements suicidaires. La présente recherche a examiné les liens intergénérationnels et cumulatifs entre la fréquentation familiale des PI relativement à l’idéation et aux tentatives de suicide de durée de vie chez les adultes des Premières nations habitant dans des réserves. </p> </div><div class="section"> <a class="named-anchor" id="d2588365e207"> <!-- named anchor --> </a>Méthode: <p id="d2588365e210">Les données de l’Enquête régionale sur la santé des Premières nations 2008-2010 ont été analysées, et les participants constituaient un échantillon représentatif des adultes de plus de 18 ans des Premières nations (N pondéré = 127 338) (les pensionnaires des PI étaient exclus). De ceux qui connaissaient leurs antécédents familiaux à l’égard des PI, 38,0% n’avaient pas d’antécédents de fréquentation des PI, 19,3% avaient un grand-parent qui les avait fréquentés, 16,2% avaient un parent qui les avait fréquentés, et 26,5% avaient un parent <i>et</i> un grand-parent qui les avaient fréquentés. </p> </div><div class="section"> <a class="named-anchor" id="d2588365e215"> <!-- named anchor --> </a>Résultats: <p id="d2588365e218">L’exposition d’une génération familiale précédente à l’expérience des PI était associée à un risque accru d’idéation suicidaire de durée de vie [RC = 1,46; IC à 95% 1,16 à 1,84; <i>p</i> = 0,001] et de tentatives de suicide [RC = 1,44; IC à 95% 1,07 à 1,94; <i>p</i> &lt; 0,016] comparativement à ceux qui n’ont pas d’antécédents de PI. Avoir deux générations d’antécédents familiaux de PI était associé à de plus fortes probabilités de déclarer une tentative de suicide comparativement à n’avoir qu’une génération [RC = 1,35; IC à 95% 1,05 à 1,75; <i>p</i> = 0,022], ce qui était réduit quand les niveaux actuels de détresse et d’idéation étaient pris en compte. </p> </div><div class="section"> <a class="named-anchor" id="d2588365e229"> <!-- named anchor --> </a>Conclusion: <p id="d2588365e232">Les résultats soutiennent l’existence de liens entre l’exposition intergénérationnelle aux PI et le risque d’idéation et de tentatives de suicide, et d’un risque cumulatif potentiel relativement aux tentatives de suicide dans toutes les générations. </p> </div>

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          Most cited references23

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          Twelve-month prevalence of and risk factors for suicide attempts in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys.

          Although suicide is a leading cause of death worldwide, clinicians and researchers lack a data-driven method to assess the risk of suicide attempts. This study reports the results of an analysis of a large cross-national epidemiologic survey database that estimates the 12-month prevalence of suicidal behaviors, identifies risk factors for suicide attempts, and combines these factors to create a risk index for 12-month suicide attempts separately for developed and developing countries. Data come from the World Health Organization (WHO) World Mental Health (WMH) Surveys (conducted 2001-2007), in which 108,705 adults from 21 countries were interviewed using the WHO Composite International Diagnostic Interview. The survey assessed suicidal behaviors and potential risk factors across multiple domains, including sociodemographic characteristics, parent psychopathology, childhood adversities, DSM-IV disorders, and history of suicidal behavior. Twelve-month prevalence estimates of suicide ideation, plans, and attempts are 2.0%, 0.6%, and 0.3%, respectively, for developed countries and 2.1%, 0.7%, and 0.4%, respectively, for developing countries. Risk factors for suicidal behaviors in both developed and developing countries include female sex, younger age, lower education and income, unmarried status, unemployment, parent psychopathology, childhood adversities, and presence of diverse 12-month DSM-IV mental disorders. Combining risk factors from multiple domains produced risk indices that accurately predicted 12-month suicide attempts in both developed and developing countries (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve = 0.74-0.80). Suicidal behaviors occur at similar rates in both developed and developing countries. Risk indices assessing multiple domains can predict suicide attempts with fairly good accuracy and may be useful in aiding clinicians in the prediction of these behaviors. © Copyright 2010 Physicians Postgraduate Press, Inc.
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            Historical trauma in American Indian/Native Alaska communities: a multilevel framework for exploring impacts on individuals, families, and communities.

            Over multiple generations, American Indian communities have endured a succession of traumatic events that have enduring consequences for community members. This article presents a multilevel framework for exploring the impact of historically traumatic events on individuals, families, and communities. The critical connection between historically traumatic events and contemporary stressors is also discussed at length.
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              Intergenerational Transmission of Stress in Humans.

              The hypothesis that offspring are affected by parental trauma or stress exposure, first noted anecdotally, is now supported empirically by data from Holocaust survivor offspring cohorts and other populations. These findings have been extended to less extreme forms of stress, where differential physical, behavioral, and cognitive outcomes are observed in affected offspring. Parental stress-mediated effects in offspring could be explained by genetics or social learning theory. Alternatively, biological variations stemming from stress exposure in parents could more directly have an impact on offspring, a concept we refer to here as 'intergenerational transmission', via changes to gametes and the gestational uterine environment. We further extend this definition to include the transmission of stress to offspring via early postnatal care, as animal studies demonstrate the importance of early maternal care of pups in affecting offsprings' long-term behavioral changes. Here, we review clinical observations in offspring, noting that offspring of stress- or trauma-exposed parents may be at greater risk for physical, behavioral, and cognitive problems, as well as psychopathology. Furthermore, we review findings concerning offspring biological correlates of parental stress, in particular, offspring neuroendocrine, epigenetic, and neuroanatomical changes, in an attempt to determine the extent of parental stress effects. Although understanding the etiology of effects in offspring is currently impeded by methodological constraints, and limitations in our knowledge, we summarize current information and conclude by presenting hypotheses that have been prompted by recent studies in the field.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry
                Can J Psychiatry
                SAGE Publications
                0706-7437
                1497-0015
                May 31 2017
                June 2017
                March 29 2017
                June 2017
                : 62
                : 6
                : 422-430
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario
                [2 ]Department of Psychiatry and School of Nursing, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia
                [3 ]Institute of Cognitive Science, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario
                [4 ]Institute of Mental Health Research, Royal Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, Ontario
                Article
                10.1177/0706743717702075
                5455875
                28355491
                7277ae8a-81a5-4fa4-8a12-d795505892e5
                © 2017

                http://journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license

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