The Triad Mother-Breast Milk-Infant as Predictor of Future Health: A Narrative Review

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Abstract

The benefits of human milk for both mother and infant are widely acknowledged. Human milk could represent a link between maternal and offspring health. The triad mother-breast milk-infant is an interconnected system in which maternal diet and lifestyle might have effects on infant’s health outcome. This link could be in part explained by epigenetics, even if the underlining mechanisms have not been fully clarified yet. The aim of this paper is to update the association between maternal diet and human milk, pointing out how maternal diet and lifestyle could be associated with breast-milk composition, hence with offspring’s health outcome.

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Most cited references 163

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Breastfeeding and the use of human milk.

(2012)

Breastfeeding and human milk are the normative standards for infant feeding and nutrition. Given the documented short- and long-term medical and neurodevelopmental advantages of breastfeeding, infant nutrition should be considered a public health issue and not only a lifestyle choice. The American Academy of Pediatrics reaffirms its recommendation of exclusive breastfeeding for about 6 months, followed by continued breastfeeding as complementary foods are introduced, with continuation of breastfeeding for 1 year or longer as mutually desired by mother and infant. Medical contraindications to breastfeeding are rare. Infant growth should be monitored with the World Health Organization (WHO) Growth Curve Standards to avoid mislabeling infants as underweight or failing to thrive. Hospital routines to encourage and support the initiation and sustaining of exclusive breastfeeding should be based on the American Academy of Pediatrics-endorsed WHO/UNICEF "Ten Steps to Successful Breastfeeding." National strategies supported by the US Surgeon General's Call to Action, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and The Joint Commission are involved to facilitate breastfeeding practices in US hospitals and communities. Pediatricians play a critical role in their practices and communities as advocates of breastfeeding and thus should be knowledgeable about the health risks of not breastfeeding, the economic benefits to society of breastfeeding, and the techniques for managing and supporting the breastfeeding dyad. The "Business Case for Breastfeeding" details how mothers can maintain lactation in the workplace and the benefits to employers who facilitate this practice.

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Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets.

Vesanto Melina, Winston Craig, Susan Levin (2016)

It is the position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics that appropriately planned vegetarian, including vegan, diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may provide health benefits for the prevention and treatment of certain diseases. These diets are appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy, lactation, infancy, childhood, adolescence, older adulthood, and for athletes. Plant-based diets are more environmentally sustainable than diets rich in animal products because they use fewer natural resources and are associated with much less environmental damage. Vegetarians and vegans are at reduced risk of certain health conditions, including ischemic heart disease, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, certain types of cancer, and obesity. Low intake of saturated fat and high intakes of vegetables, fruits, whole grains, legumes, soy products, nuts, and seeds (all rich in fiber and phytochemicals) are characteristics of vegetarian and vegan diets that produce lower total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels and better serum glucose control. These factors contribute to reduction of chronic disease. Vegans need reliable sources of vitamin B-12, such as fortified foods or supplements.

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Anemia and iron deficiency: effects on pregnancy outcome.

Lindsay Allen (2000)

This article reviews current knowledge of the effects of maternal anemia and iron deficiency on pregnancy outcome. A considerable amount of information remains to be learned about the benefits of maternal iron supplementation on the health and iron status of the mother and her child during pregnancy and postpartum. Current knowledge indicates that iron deficiency anemia in pregnancy is a risk factor for preterm delivery and subsequent low birth weight, and possibly for inferior neonatal health. Data are inadequate to determine the extent to which maternal anemia might contribute to maternal mortality. Even for women who enter pregnancy with reasonable iron stores, iron supplements improve iron status during pregnancy and for a considerable length of time postpartum, thus providing some protection against iron deficiency in the subsequent pregnancy. Mounting evidence indicates that maternal iron deficiency in pregnancy reduces fetal iron stores, perhaps well into the first year of life. This deserves further exploration because of the tendency of infants to develop iron deficiency anemia and because of the documented adverse consequences of this condition on infant development. The weight of evidence supports the advisability of routine iron supplementation during pregnancy.

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Author and article information

Contributors

Nadja Haiden: Role: Academic Editor

Journal

Journal ID (nlm-ta): Nutrients

Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Nutrients

Journal ID (publisher-id): nutrients

Title: Nutrients

Publisher: MDPI

ISSN (Electronic): 2072-6643

Publication date (Electronic): 02 February 2021

Publication date Collection: February 2021

Volume: 13

Issue: 2

Electronic Location Identifier: 486

Affiliations

[1 ]Department of Health Sciences, University of Milan, 20154 Milan, Italy; elvira.verduci@ 123456unimi.it

[2 ]Department of Pediatrics, Vittore Buzzi Children’s Hospital University of Milan, 20154 Milan, Italy; sara.vizzuso@ 123456unimi.it (S.V.); gianvincenzo.zuccotti@ 123456unimi.it (G.V.Z.)

[3 ]Department of Clinical Sciences and Community Health, University of Milan, Via San Barnaba 8, 20122 Milan, Italy; giulia.vizzari@ 123456unimi.it (G.V.); jacopo.cerasani@ 123456unimi.it (J.C.); fabio.mosca@ 123456unimi.it (F.M.)

[4 ]Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico NICU, Via Commenda 12, 20122 Milan, Italy

Author notes

[* ]Correspondence: maria.gianni@ 123456unimi.it

[†]

These authors have contributed equally to this work.

Author information

Elvira Verduci https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2111-3111

Maria Lorella Giannì https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3901-9131

Sara Vizzuso https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3001-0387

Jacopo Cerasani https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2474-0789

Gian Vincenzo Zuccotti https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2795-9874

Article

Publisher ID: nutrients-13-00486

DOI: 10.3390/nu13020486

PMC ID: 7913039

PubMed ID: 33540672

SO-VID: 755b1328-43ca-4546-a5ac-ebb22a537173

License:

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

The Triad Mother-Breast Milk-Infant as Predictor of Future Health: A Narrative Review

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Abstract

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Karger: Nutrition and Dietetics

Most cited references 163

Breastfeeding and the use of human milk.

Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets.

Anemia and iron deficiency: effects on pregnancy outcome.

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