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      Monitoring the Mind: The Neurocognitive Correlates of Metamemory

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          Abstract

          Memory performance in everyday life is often far from perfect and therefore needs to be monitored and controlled by metamemory evaluations, such as judgments of learning (JOLs). JOLs support monitoring for goal-directed modification of learning. Behavioral studies suggested retrieval processes as providing a basis for JOLs. Previous functional imaging research on JOLs found a dissociation between processes underlying memory prediction, located in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and actual encoding success, located in the medial temporal lobe. However, JOL-specific neural correlates could not be identified unequivocally, since JOLs were given simultaneously with encoding. Here, we aimed to identify the neurocognitive basis of JOLs, i.e., the cognitive processes and neural correlates of JOL, separate from initial encoding. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), we implemented a face-name paired associative design. In general, we found that actual memory success was associated with increased brain activation of the hippocampi bilaterally, whereas predicted memory success was accompanied by increased activation in mPFC, orbital frontal and anterior cingulate cortices. Masking brain activation during predicted memory success with activation during retrieval success revealed BOLD increases of the mPFC. Our findings indicate that JOLs actually incorporate retrieval processes.

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          The role of the medial frontal cortex in cognitive control.

          Adaptive goal-directed behavior involves monitoring of ongoing actions and performance outcomes, and subsequent adjustments of behavior and learning. We evaluate new findings in cognitive neuroscience concerning cortical interactions that subserve the recruitment and implementation of such cognitive control. A review of primate and human studies, along with a meta-analysis of the human functional neuroimaging literature, suggest that the detection of unfavorable outcomes, response errors, response conflict, and decision uncertainty elicits largely overlapping clusters of activation foci in an extensive part of the posterior medial frontal cortex (pMFC). A direct link is delineated between activity in this area and subsequent adjustments in performance. Emerging evidence points to functional interactions between the pMFC and the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC), so that monitoring-related pMFC activity serves as a signal that engages regulatory processes in the LPFC to implement performance adjustments.
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            Emotion, decision making and the orbitofrontal cortex.

            The somatic marker hypothesis provides a systems-level neuroanatomical and cognitive framework for decision making and the influence on it by emotion. The key idea of this hypothesis is that decision making is a process that is influenced by marker signals that arise in bioregulatory processes, including those that express themselves in emotions and feelings. This influence can occur at multiple levels of operation, some of which occur consciously and some of which occur non-consciously. Here we review studies that confirm various predictions from the hypothesis. The orbitofrontal cortex represents one critical structure in a neural system subserving decision making. Decision making is not mediated by the orbitofrontal cortex alone, but arises from large-scale systems that include other cortical and subcortical components. Such structures include the amygdala, the somatosensory/insular cortices and the peripheral nervous system. Here we focus only on the role of the orbitofrontal cortex in decision making and emotional processing, and the relationship between emotion, decision making and other cognitive functions of the frontal lobe, namely working memory.
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              A unified statistical approach for determining significant signals in images of cerebral activation.

              We present a unified statistical theory for assessing the significance of apparent signal observed in noisy difference images. The results are usable in a wide range of applications, including fMRI, but are discussed with particular reference to PET images which represent changes in cerebral blood flow elicited by a specific cognitive or sensorimotor task. Our main result is an estimate of the P-value for local maxima of Gaussian, t, chi(2) and F fields over search regions of any shape or size in any number of dimensions. This unifies the P-values for large search areas in 2-D (Friston et al. [1991]: J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 11:690-699) large search regions in 3-D (Worsley et al. [1992]: J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 12:900-918) and the usual uncorrected P-value at a single pixel or voxel. Copyright (c) 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, USA )
                1932-6203
                2012
                5 January 2012
                : 7
                : 1
                : e30009
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Epileptology, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
                [2 ]Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
                [3 ]German Center of Neurodegenerative Diseases, Bonn, Germany
                [4 ]MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, United Kingdom
                [5 ]Department of Medical Psychology and Sociology, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany
                [6 ]Helmholtz-Institute for Radiation and Nuclear Physics, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
                [7 ]Department of Psychology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
                Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
                Author notes

                Conceived and designed the experiments: ADL SG SW. Performed the experiments: ADL. Analyzed the data: ADL NA JF BS TW JO. Wrote the paper: ADL NA JF.

                Article
                PONE-D-11-09019
                10.1371/journal.pone.0030009
                3252366
                22242196
                755bd5d1-ea62-49bd-bf24-c801da896db8
                Do Lam et al. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
                History
                : 21 May 2011
                : 10 December 2011
                Page count
                Pages: 9
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology
                Neuroscience
                Cognitive Neuroscience
                Neuroimaging
                Medicine
                Mental Health
                Psychology
                Cognitive Psychology
                Social and Behavioral Sciences
                Psychology
                Cognitive Psychology

                Uncategorized
                Uncategorized

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