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      Two Cases of Proliferative Diabetic Retinopathy with Marked Sheathing of the Retinal Arteries following Vitrectomy

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          Abstract

          Purpose: The aim of this paper was to report 2 patients (3 eyes) with proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR) who showed marked sheathing of the retinal arterioles that was ultimately attributed to calcification following vitrectomy. Cases: Case 1 involved a 65-year-old female with PDR who underwent bilateral vitrectomy for traction retinal detachment. Postoperatively, bilateral retinal redetachment (reRD) was observed. Sheathing of the retinal arterioles was observed at the same time, yet was not apparent preoperatively. Case 2 involved a 71-year-old female with PDR who underwent vitrectomy for vitreous hemorrhage. Postoperatively, reRD was observed, and fundus findings showed sheathing of the retinal arterioles. In both patients, silicone oil tamponade and retinopexy were performed at reoperation, but sheathing of the retinal arterioles persisted postoperatively. Fluorescein fundus angiography showed that retinal blood flow was maintained, and no vessel leakage occurred. In addition, no sheathing of the retinal veins was observed. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) showed a higher intensity for retinal arterioles with sheathing than for normal retinal arterioles. Conclusion: Vessel sheathing in our 2 patients (3 eyes) differed from the sheathing seen in vasculitis. Based on the hyperintensity on OCT, this sheathing may have been due to retinal artery calcification induced by hypoxia and inflammation associated with reRD.

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          Most cited references11

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          Induction of bone-type alkaline phosphatase in human vascular smooth muscle cells: roles of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and oncostatin M derived from macrophages.

          Inflammatory cells such as macrophages and T lymphocytes play an important role in vascular calcification associated with atherosclerosis and cardiac valvular disease. In particular, macrophages activated with cytokines derived from T lymphocytes such as interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) may contribute to the development of vascular calcification. Moreover, we have shown the stimulatory effect of 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 (1,25(OH)2D3) on in vitro calcification through increasing the expression of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), an ectoenzyme indispensable for bone mineralization, in vascular smooth muscle cells. Therefore, we hypothesized that macrophages may induce calcifying phenotype, especially the expression of ALP in human vascular smooth muscle cells (HVSMCs) in the presence of IFN-gamma and 1,25(OH)2D3. To test this hypothesis, we used cocultures of HVSMCs with human monocytic cell line (THP-1) or peripheral blood monocytes (PBMCs) in the presence of IFN-gamma and 1,25(OH)2D3. THP-1 cells or PBMCs induced ALP activity and its gene expression in HVSMCs and the cells with high expression of ALP calcified their extracellular matrix by the addition of beta-glycerophosphate. Thermostability and immunoassay showed that ALP induced in HVSMCs was bone-specific enzyme. We further identified tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and oncostatin M (OSM) as major factors inducing ALP in HVSMCs in the culture supernatants of THP-1 cells. TNF-alpha and OSM, only when applied together, increased ALP activities and in vitro calcification in HVSMCs in the presence of IFN-gamma and 1,25(OH)2D3. These results suggest that macrophages may contribute to the development of vascular calcification through producing various inflammatory mediators, especially TNF-alpha and OSM.
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            Activation of receptor for advanced glycation end products induces osteogenic differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cells.

            Vascular calcification is prevalent in patients with diabetes and chronic kidney disease. Receptor for advanced glycation end products (RAGE) and its multiple ligands have been implicated in the pathogenesis of accelerated atherosclerosis; however, little is known about the effects of RAGE activation on vascular calcification. Cultured rat and human aortic smooth muscle cells (HASMC) were transduced with adenovirus expressing RAGE. Expression of myocardin and the SMC-marker genes was significantly repressed in these cells. RAGE activation inhibited myocardin-induced expression of the SMC genes in mouse embryonic mesenchymal C3H10T1/2 cells. Interestingly, RAGE activation induced alkaline phosphatase (ALP) expression, calcium deposition, and Msx2 expression, a crucial transcription factor for osteogenic differentiation, in HASMC. RAGE-induced osteogenic differentiation was significantly inhibited by endogenous secretory RAGE. RAGE-induced ALP and Msx2 expression was completely abrogated by DAPT, an inhibitor of the Notch signaling pathway. PD98059 (MEK inhibitor) effectively blunted RAGE-induced Notch1 and Msx2 gene expression. Simultaneous stimulation with bone morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2) and RAGE signaling synergistically induced expressions of Msx2 and ALP in HASMC. Immunohistochemistry revealed that the human calcifying atherosclerotic plaque expressed RAGE, Notch components and Msx2. The ALP activity induced in RAGE-overexpressing HASMCs by human serum was positively correlated with the serum creatinine level, but not with phosphate and hemoglobin A1c levels. These results indicate that activation of RAGE not only inhibits myocardin-dependent SMC gene expression, but also induces osteogenic differentiation of vascular SMC through Notch/Msx2 induction. These results provide a novel insight into the role of RAGE axis in vascular calcification.
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              Mineral exploration: search for the mechanism of vascular calcification and beyond: the 2003 Jeffrey M. Hoeg Award lecture.

              Research in the area of vascular calcification has grown rapidly in the past decade, and there is a greater understanding of its active regulatory mechanisms. This brief review covers the ideas presented in the 2003 Jeffrey M. Hoeg Award lecture, including the concepts that bone tissue forms in the artery wall in patients with atherosclerosis, that vascular cells undergo osteoblastic differentiation, that bone morphogenetic protein and matrix GLA protein regulate vascular calcification in opposition, that inflammatory cytokines and lipids promote vascular cell calcification but inhibit osteoblastic cell differentiation, that these same factors promote differentiation of bone-resorbing osteoclasts, and that the artery wall may contain osteoclast-like cells with the potential to resorb calcium mineral. The review closes with a mention of therapeutic possibilities and an evolutionary paradigm to explain the reciprocal responses of vascular and bone mineralization to inflammation.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                COP
                COP
                10.1159/issn.1663-2699
                Case Reports in Ophthalmology
                S. Karger AG
                1663-2699
                2017
                January – April 2017
                24 January 2017
                : 8
                : 1
                : 40-48
                Affiliations
                [_a] aDepartment of Ophthalmology, Osaka Medical College, Takatsuki, Japan
                [_b] bNakamura Eye Clinic, Matsumoto, Japan
                Author notes
                *Tsunehiko Ikeda, MD, PhD, Department of Ophthalmology, Osaka Medical College, 2-7 Daigaku-machi, Takatsuki, Osaka 569-8686 (Japan), E-Mail tikeda@osaka-med.ac.jp
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4359-4219
                Article
                456027 PMC5385865 Case Rep Ophthalmol 2017;8:40–48
                10.1159/000456027
                PMC5385865
                28413403
                763e1a29-c0df-45b0-ac92-2437d946ebd6
                © 2017 The Author(s). Published by S. Karger AG, Basel

                This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC). Usage and distribution for commercial purposes requires written permission. Drug Dosage: The authors and the publisher have exerted every effort to ensure that drug selection and dosage set forth in this text are in accord with current recommendations and practice at the time of publication. However, in view of ongoing research, changes in government regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to drug therapy and drug reactions, the reader is urged to check the package insert for each drug for any changes in indications and dosage and for added warnings and precautions. This is particularly important when the recommended agent is a new and/or infrequently employed drug. Disclaimer: The statements, opinions and data contained in this publication are solely those of the individual authors and contributors and not of the publishers and the editor(s). The appearance of advertisements or/and product references in the publication is not a warranty, endorsement, or approval of the products or services advertised or of their effectiveness, quality or safety. The publisher and the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to persons or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content or advertisements.

                History
                : 06 October 2016
                : 20 December 2016
                Page count
                Figures: 4, Pages: 9
                Categories
                Case Report

                Vision sciences,Ophthalmology & Optometry,Pathology
                Retinal detachment,Diabetic retinopathy,Sheathing,Vitrectomy,Retinal arterioles,Calcification

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