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      Raw diets for dogs and cats: a review, with particular reference to microbiological hazards

      review-article
      1 , 2 , 3 ,
      The Journal of Small Animal Practice
      Blackwell Publishing Ltd

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          Abstract

          There is a recent trend to feed pet dogs and cats in Britain and other developed countries on raw meat and animal by‐products using either commercial preparations or home recipes. This shift from heat‐treated processed food has been driven by perceived health benefits to pets and a suspicion of industrially produced pet food. The diets of wild‐living related species have been used as a rationale for raw feeding, but differences in biology and lifestyle impose limitations on such comparisons. Formal evidence does exist for claims by raw‐feeding proponents of an altered intestinal microbiome and (subjectively) improved stool quality. However, there is currently neither robust evidence nor identified plausible mechanisms for many of the wide range of other claimed benefits. There are documented risks associated with raw feeding, principally malnutrition (inexpert formulation and testing of diets) and infection affecting pets and/or household members. Surveys in Europe and North America have consistently found Salmonella species in a proportion of samples, typically of fresh‐frozen commercial diets. Another emerging issue concerns the risk of introducing antimicrobial‐resistant bacteria. Raw pet food commonly exceeds hygiene thresholds for counts of Enterobacteriaceae. These bacteria often encode resistance to critically important antibiotics such as extended‐spectrum cephalosporins, and raw‐fed pets create an elevated risk of shedding such resistant bacteria. Other infectious organisms that may be of concern include Listeria, shiga toxigenic E scherichia coli , parasites such as Toxoplasma gondii and exotic agents such as the zoonotic livestock pathogen Brucella suis, recently identified in European Union and UK raw pet meat imported from Argentina.

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          Human behaviour and the epidemiology of parasitic zoonoses.

          The behaviour of Homo sapiens has a pivotal role to play in the macro and microepidemiology of emerging or re-emerging parasitic zoonoses. Changing demographics and the concomitant alterations to the environment, climate, technology, land use and changes in human behavior, converge to favour the emergence and spread of parasitic zoonoses. The recent unprecedented movements of people, their animals and their parasites around the world, introduce and mix genes, cultural preferences, customs, and behavioral patterns. The increasing proclivity for eating meat, fish, crabs, shrimp, molluscs raw, undercooked, smoked, pickled or dried facilitates a number of protozoan (Toxoplasma), trematode (Fasciola sp., Paragonimus spp., Clonorchis sp., Opisthorchis spp., Heterophyes sp., Metagonimus sp., Echinostoma spp., Nanophyetus sp.) cestode (Taenia spp, Diphyllobothrum sp.) and nematode (Trichinella spp., Capillaria spp., Gnathostoma spp., Anisakis sp., Parastrongylus spp.) caused zoonoses. The increasing world population and the inability to keep pace with the provision of adequate sanitation and clean, safe drinking water, has led to an increased importance of waterborne zoonoses, such as those caused by Giardia, Cryptosporidium and Toxoplasma. Our close relationship with and the numerous uses to which we put companion animals and their ubiquitous distribution has resulted in dogs and cats unwitting participation in sharing over 60 parasite species including: Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Toxoplasma, most foodborne trematode species, Diphyllobothrum, Echinococcus spp., Ancylostoma and Toxocara. Changing human behaviour through education, to encourage the proper cooking of food, which may have cultural and social significance, will remain as challenging as controlling stray and feral pet populations, improving hygiene levels and the provision of safe drinking water and the proper use of sanctuary facilities. Long pre-patent periods and the normally insidious sub-clinical nature of most zoonoses makes advice requiring behavioural change for their control a difficult task. Our clearer understanding of the heterogeneity of susceptibility to infection, the complex genetic variations of people and parasite species and the development of molecular epidemiological tools is shedding more light on transmission routes and the spectrum of disease that is observed. Improved and new serological, molecular and imaging diagnostic tests and the development of broad spectrum chemotherapeutic agents has led to the attenuation of morbidity and mortality due to parasitic zoonoses in economically advantaged regions. Such advancements, in partnership with supportive behavioural change, has the potential for a sustainable global reduction in the burden of ill health due to parasitic zoonoses. Whether this will materialise is a challenge for us all.
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            Bacterial Zoonoses Transmitted by Household Pets: State-of-the-Art and Future Perspectives for Targeted Research and Policy Actions.

            The close contact between household pets and people offers favourable conditions for bacterial transmission. In this article, the aetiology, prevalence, transmission, impact on human health and preventative measures are summarized for selected bacterial zoonoses transmissible by household pets. Six zoonoses representing distinct transmission routes were selected arbitrarily based on the available information on incidence and severity of pet-associated disease caused by zoonotic bacteria: bite infections and cat scratch disease (physical injuries), psittacosis (inhalation), leptospirosis (contact with urine), and campylobacteriosis and salmonellosis (faecal-oral ingestion). Antimicrobial resistance was also included due to the recent emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria of zoonotic potential in dogs and cats. There is a general lack of data on pathogen prevalence in the relevant pet population and on the incidence of human infections attributable to pets. In order to address these gaps in knowledge, and to minimize the risk of human infection, actions at several levels are recommended, including: (1) coordinated surveillance of zoonotic pathogens and antimicrobial resistance in household pets, (2) studies to estimate the burden of human disease attributable to pets and to identify risk behaviours facilitating transmission, and (3) education of those in charge of pets, animal caretakers, veterinarians and human medical healthcare practitioners on the potential zoonotic risks associated with exposure to pets. Disease-specific recommendations include incentives to undertake research aimed at the development of new diagnostic tests, veterinary-specific antimicrobial products and vaccines, as well as initiatives to promote best practices in veterinary diagnostic laboratories and prudent antimicrobial usage.
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              Population dynamics and antimicrobial resistance of the most prevalent poultry-associated Salmonella serotypes.

              Salmonella spp. is the most predominant bacterial cause of foodborne gastroenteritis in humans. Due to the risk of human infection associated with poultry products and the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance, Salmonella also poses a significant challenge to commercial poultry production. During the last decade (2002 to 2012), the 12 most prevalent poultry-associated Salmonella serotypes (MPPSTs) were frequently and consistently isolated from poultry products in the United States. These MPPSTs and their percent prevalence in poultry products include Kentucky (4%), Enteritidis (2%) Heidelberg (2%), Typhimurium (2%), S. I 4,[5],12:i:- (0.31%), Montevideo (0.20%), Infantis (0.16%) Schwarzengrund (0.15%), Hadar (0.15%), Mbandaka (0.13%), Thompson (0.12%), and Senftenberg (0.04%). All MPPSTs except Kentucky are among the top 30 clinically significant serotypes that cause human illnesses in the United States. However with the exception of a few widely studied serotypes such as S. Enteritidis and Typhimurium, the ecology and epidemiology of the majority of MPPSTs still remain poorly investigated. Published data from the United States suggests that MPPSTs such as Heidelberg, Typhimurium, Kentucky, and Sentfenberg are more likely to be multi-drug resistant (MDR, ≥3 antimicobial classes) whereas Enteritidis, Montevideo, Schwarzengrund, Hadar, Infantis, Thompson, and Mbandaka are generally pan-susceptible or display resistance to fewer antimicobials. In contrast, the majority of MPPSTs isolated globally have been reported to display MDR phenotype. There also appears to be an international spread of a few MDR serotypes including Kentucky, Schwarzengrund, Hadar, Thomson, Sentfenberg, and Enteritidis, which may pose significant challenges to the public health. The current knowledge gaps on the ecology, epidemiology, and antimicrobial resistance of MPPSTs are discussed.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                a.wales@surrey.ac.uk
                Journal
                J Small Anim Pract
                J Small Anim Pract
                10.1111/(ISSN)1748-5827
                JSAP
                The Journal of Small Animal Practice
                Blackwell Publishing Ltd (Oxford, UK )
                0022-4510
                1748-5827
                26 April 2019
                June 2019
                : 60
                : 6 ( doiID: 10.1111/jsap.2019.60.issue-6 )
                : 329-339
                Affiliations
                [ 1 ] Department of Bacteriology and Food Safety Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA – Weybridge) Addlestone, KT15 3NB UK
                [ 2 ] Department of Epidemiological Sciences Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA – Weybridge) Addlestone, KT15 3NB UK
                [ 3 ] Department of Pathology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences University of Surrey Guildford, GU2 7AL UK
                Author notes
                [*] [* ]Corresponding author email: a.wales@ 123456surrey.ac.uk
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8657-3007
                Article
                JSAP13000
                10.1111/jsap.13000
                6849757
                31025713
                775cf6cb-a31a-4b9a-80bd-d50d8edac6e7
                © 2019 Crown Copyright. Journal of Small Animal Practice published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of British Small Animal Veterinary Association.

                This is an open access article under the terms of the http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited, the use is non‐commercial and no modifications or adaptations are made.

                History
                : 05 December 2018
                : 11 February 2019
                : 08 March 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 1, Pages: 11, Words: 10500
                Funding
                Funded by: Defra/Welsh Government/Scottish Government‐funded APHA surveillance programmes , open-funder-registry 10.13039/501100000277;
                Categories
                Review
                Review
                Custom metadata
                2.0
                June 2019
                Converter:WILEY_ML3GV2_TO_JATSPMC version:5.7.1 mode:remove_FC converted:12.11.2019

                Veterinary medicine
                Veterinary medicine

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