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      Cross-sectional Study on the Effects of Socioeconomic Factors on Lead Exposure in Children by Gender in Serpong, Indonesia

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          Abstract

          To elucidate the socioeconomic factors influencing lead exposure in elementary school children by gender, 108 children (56 male, 52 female), aged 6–7 years, were randomly selected from 39 elementary state schools in Serpong, Banten, Indonesia. Their parents were interviewed to obtain information on sociodemographic characteristics. Their blood lead (BPb) levels were measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometry. BPb concentrations were significantly higher in males than in females, i.e., 6.8 ± 2.0 (2.9–12.5) µg/dL and 5.9 ± 1.9 (3.1–11.7) µg/dL, respectively ( p < 0.05). Lower socioeconomic status and well water use were associated with increased BPb concentrations, especially in females. The proportion of well water use was related to lower socioeconomic status. Lower socioeconomic status linked with well water drinking seemed to be associated with increased lead exposure in children in Serpong. Their exposure levels possibly varied according to gender differences in behavior. An intervention should be instituted among children in Serpong with BPb concentrations of 10 µg/dL or above.

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          Low-Level Environmental Lead Exposure and Children’s Intellectual Function: An International Pooled Analysis

          Bruce Lanphear, Richard Hornung, Jane Khoury … (2005)
          Lead is a confirmed neurotoxin, but questions remain about lead-associated intellectual deficits at blood lead levels < 10 μg/dL and whether lower exposures are, for a given change in exposure, associated with greater deficits. The objective of this study was to examine the association of intelligence test scores and blood lead concentration, especially for children who had maximal measured blood lead levels < 10 μg/dL. We examined data collected from 1,333 children who participated in seven international population-based longitudinal cohort studies, followed from birth or infancy until 5–10 years of age. The full-scale IQ score was the primary outcome measure. The geometric mean blood lead concentration of the children peaked at 17.8 μg/dL and declined to 9.4 μg/dL by 5–7 years of age; 244 (18%) children had a maximal blood lead concentration < 10 μg/dL, and 103 (8%) had a maximal blood lead concentration < 7.5 μg/dL. After adjustment for covariates, we found an inverse relationship between blood lead concentration and IQ score. Using a log-linear model, we found a 6.9 IQ point decrement [95% confidence interval (CI), 4.2–9.4] associated with an increase in concurrent blood lead levels from 2.4 to 30 μg/dL. The estimated IQ point decrements associated with an increase in blood lead from 2.4 to 10 μg/dL, 10 to 20 μg/dL, and 20 to 30 μg/dL were 3.9 (95% CI, 2.4–5.3), 1.9 (95% CI, 1.2–2.6), and 1.1 (95% CI, 0.7–1.5), respectively. For a given increase in blood lead, the lead-associated intellectual decrement for children with a maximal blood lead level < 7.5 μg/dL was significantly greater than that observed for those with a maximal blood lead level ≥7.5 μg/dL (p = 0.015). We conclude that environmental lead exposure in children who have maximal blood lead levels < 7.5 μg/dL is associated with intellectual deficits.
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            Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality

            (2011)
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              Lead poisoning.

              Herbert Needleman (2004)
              Understanding of lead toxicity has advanced substantially over the past three decades, and focus has shifted from high-dose effects in clinically symptomatic individuals to the consequences of exposure at lower doses that cause no symptoms, particularly in children and fetuses. The availability of more sensitive analytic methods has made it possible to measure lead at much lower concentrations. This advance, along with more refined epidemiological techniques and better outcome measures, has lowered the least observable effect level until it approaches zero. As a consequence, the segment of the population who are diagnosed with exposure to toxic levels has expanded. At the same time, environmental efforts, most importantly the removal of lead from gasoline, have dramatically reduced the amount of lead in the biosphere. The remaining major source of lead is older housing stock. Although the cost of lead paint abatement is measured in billions of dollars, the monetized benefits of such a Herculean task have been shown to far outweigh the costs.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Int J Environ Res Public Health
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Int J Environ Res Public Health
                Journal ID (publisher-id): ijerph
                Title: International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
                Publisher: MDPI
                ISSN (Print): 1661-7827
                ISSN (Electronic): 1660-4601
                Publication date (Electronic): 14 November 2012
                Publication date (Print): November 2012
                Volume: 9
                Issue: 11
                Pages: 4135-4149
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, Juntendo University Faculty of Medicine, 2-1-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8421, Japan; Email: dewi@ 123456juntendo.ac.jp (D.I.); tmatsuka@ 123456juntendo.ac.jp (T.M.); h-itou@ 123456juntendo.ac.jp (H.I.); kyokoya@ 123456juntendo.ac.jp (K.Y.)
                [2 ] Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Syarif Hidayatullah, State Islamic University, Jl, Kertamukti, Ciputat, Jakarta 15412, Indonesia; Email: tajudin@ 123456dnet.net.id
                Author notes
                [* ] Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; Email: kyokoya@ 123456juntendo.ac.jp ; Tel.: +81-3-5802-1047; Fax: +81-3-3812-1026.
                Article
                Publisher ID: ijerph-09-04135
                DOI: 10.3390/ijerph9114135
                PMC ID: 3524617
                PubMed ID: 23202836
                SO-VID: 7807ff2e-2afa-4bae-9efd-d3d66c2c7480
                Copyright © © 2012 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
                License:

                This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).

                History
                Date received : 31 July 2012
                Date revision received : 02 November 2012
                Date accepted : 07 November 2012
                Categories
                Subject: Article

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: indonesia,sex differences,drinking water,socioeconomic factors,lead,children
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Public health
                Keywords: indonesia, sex differences, drinking water, socioeconomic factors, lead, children

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