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      Distribution and Phylogeny of Erythrocytic Necrosis Virus (ENV) in Salmon Suggests Marine Origin

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          Abstract

          Viral erythrocytic necrosis (VEN) affects over 20 species of marine and anadromous fishes in the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans. However, the distribution and strain variation of its viral causative agent, erythrocytic necrosis virus (ENV), has not been well characterized within Pacific salmon. Here, metatranscriptomic sequencing of Chinook salmon revealed that ENV infecting salmon was closely related to ENV from Pacific herring, with inferred amino-acid sequences from Chinook salmon being 99% identical to those reported for herring. Sequence analysis also revealed 89 protein-encoding sequences attributed to ENV, greatly expanding the amount of genetic information available for this virus. High-throughput PCR of over 19,000 fish showed that ENV is widely distributed in the NE Pacific Ocean and was detected in 12 of 16 tested species, including in 27% of herring, 38% of anchovy, 17% of pollock, and 13% of sand lance. Despite frequent detection in marine fish, ENV prevalence was significantly lower in fish from freshwater (0.03%), as assessed with a generalized linear mixed effects model ( p = 5.5 × 10 −8). Thus, marine fish are likely a reservoir for the virus. High genetic similarity between ENV obtained from salmon and herring also suggests that transmission between these hosts is likely.

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            Sequencing the genome of the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

            The International Collaboration to Sequence the Atlantic Salmon Genome (ICSASG) will produce a genome sequence that identifies and physically maps all genes in the Atlantic salmon genome and acts as a reference sequence for other salmonids.
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              Infectious disease, shifting climates, and opportunistic predators: cumulative factors potentially impacting wild salmon declines

              Emerging diseases are impacting animals under high-density culture, yet few studies assess their importance to wild populations. Microparasites selected for enhanced virulence in culture settings should be less successful maintaining infectivity in wild populations, as once the host dies, there are limited opportunities to infect new individuals. Instead, moderately virulent microparasites persisting for long periods across multiple environments are of greatest concern. Evolved resistance to endemic microparasites may reduce susceptibilities, but as barriers to microparasite distributions are weakened, and environments become more stressful, unexposed populations may be impacted and pathogenicity enhanced. We provide an overview of the evolutionary and ecological impacts of infectious diseases in wild salmon and suggest ways in which modern technologies can elucidate the microparasites of greatest potential import. We present four case studies that resolve microparasite impacts on adult salmon migration success, impact of river warming on microparasite replication, and infection status on susceptibility to predation. Future health of wild salmon must be considered in a holistic context that includes the cumulative or synergistic impacts of multiple stressors. These approaches will identify populations at greatest risk, critically needed to manage and potentially ameliorate the shifts in current or future trajectories of wild populations.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Viruses
                Viruses
                viruses
                Viruses
                MDPI
                1999-4915
                18 April 2019
                April 2019
                : 11
                : 4
                : 358
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences, University of British Columbia, 2207 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; v.pagowski@ 123456alumni.ubc.ca
                [2 ]Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, 3190 Hammond Bay Rd, Nanaimo, BC V9T 6N7, Canada; Angela.Schulze@ 123456dfo-mpo.gc.ca (A.D.S.); Karia.Kaukinen@ 123456dfo-mpo.gc.ca (K.H.K.); Tobi.Ming@ 123456dfo-mpo.gc.ca (T.J.M.); Shaorong.Li@ 123456dfo-mpo.gc.ca (S.L.); Amy.Tabata@ 123456dfo-mpo.gc.ca (A.T.)
                [3 ]Biology Department, University of Victoria, 3800 Finnerty Rd, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada; akteffer@ 123456gmail.com
                [4 ]Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of British Columbia, 2207 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
                [5 ]Department of Botany, University of British Columbia, 2207 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
                [6 ]Institute for the Oceans and Fisheries, University of British Columbia, 2207 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada
                Author notes
                [†]

                These authors contributed equally to this work.

                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8397-9194
                https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5322-2617
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0372-0033
                Article
                viruses-11-00358
                10.3390/v11040358
                6520742
                31003511
                7b1e33ca-702e-4071-b01d-8d3515b549df
                © 2019 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 17 March 2019
                : 16 April 2019
                Categories
                Article

                Microbiology & Virology
                erythrocytic necrosis virus (env),viral erythrocytic necrosis (ven),pacific salmon,pacific herring,british columbia

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