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      Genetic changes that accompanied shifts of low pathogenic avian influenza viruses toward higher pathogenicity in poultry

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          Abstract

          Avian influenza viruses (AIV) of H5 and H7 subtypes exhibit two different pathotypes in poultry: infection with low pathogenic (LP) strains results in minimal, if any, health disturbances, whereas highly pathogenic (HP) strains cause severe morbidity and mortality. LPAIV of H5 and H7 subtypes can spontaneously mutate into HPAIV. Ten outbreaks caused by HPAIV are known to have been preceded by circulation of a predecessor LPAIV in poultry. Three of them were caused by H5N2 subtype and seven involved H7 subtype in combination with N1, N3, or N7. Here, we review those outbreaks and summarize the genetic changes which resulted in the transformation of LPAIV to HPAIV under natural conditions. Mutations that were found directly in those outbreaks are more likely to be linked to virulence, pathogenesis, and early adaptation of AIV.

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          Characterization of a novel influenza A virus hemagglutinin subtype (H16) obtained from black-headed gulls.

          Ron Fouchier, Vincent Munster, Anders Wallensten … (2005)
          In wild aquatic birds and poultry around the world, influenza A viruses carrying 15 antigenic subtypes of hemagglutinin (HA) and 9 antigenic subtypes of neuraminidase (NA) have been described. Here we describe a previously unidentified antigenic subtype of HA (H16), detected in viruses circulating in black-headed gulls in Sweden. In agreement with established criteria for the definition of antigenic subtypes, hemagglutination inhibition assays and immunodiffusion assays failed to detect specific reactivity between H16 and the previously described subtypes H1 to H15. Genetically, H16 HA was found to be distantly related to H13 HA, a subtype also detected exclusively in shorebirds, and the amino acid composition of the putative receptor-binding site of H13 and H16 HAs was found to be distinct from that in HA subtypes circulating in ducks and geese. The H16 viruses contained NA genes that were similar to those of other Eurasian shorebirds but genetically distinct from N3 genes detected in other birds and geographical locations. The European gull viruses were further distinguishable from other influenza A viruses based on their PB2, NP, and NS genes. Gaining information on the full spectrum of avian influenza A viruses and creating reagents for their detection and identification will remain an important task for influenza surveillance, outbreak control, and animal and public health. We propose that sequence analyses of HA and NA genes of influenza A viruses be used for the rapid identification of existing and novel HA and NA subtypes.
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            A review of avian influenza in different bird species.

            Dennis Alexander (2000)
            Only type A influenza viruses are known to cause natural infections in birds, but viruses of all 15 haemagglutinin and all nine neuraminidase influenza A subtypes in the majority of possible combinations have been isolated from avian species. Influenza A viruses infecting poultry can be divided into two distinct groups on the basis of their ability to cause disease. The very virulent viruses cause highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), in which mortality may be as high as 100%. These viruses have been restricted to subtypes H5 and H7, although not all viruses of these subtypes cause HPAI. All other viruses cause a much milder, primarily respiratory disease, which may be exacerbated by other infections or environmental conditions. Since 1959, primary outbreaks of HPAI in poultry have been reported 17 times (eight since 1990), five in turkeys and 12 in chickens. HPAI viruses are rarely isolated from wild birds, but extremely high isolation rates of viruses of low virulence for poultry have been recorded in surveillance studies, giving overall figures of about 15% for ducks and geese and around 2% for all other species. Influenza viruses have been shown to affect all types of domestic or captive birds in all areas of the world, but the frequency with which primary infections occur in any type of bird depends on the degree of contact there is with feral birds. Secondary spread is usually associated with human involvement, probably by transferring infective faeces from infected to susceptible birds.
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              Transmission of H7N7 avian influenza A virus to human beings during a large outbreak in commercial poultry farms in the Netherlands.

              Marion Koopmans, Berry Wilbrink, Marina Conyn … (2004)
              An outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza A virus subtype H7N7 started at the end of February, 2003, in commercial poultry farms in the Netherlands. Although the risk of transmission of these viruses to humans was initially thought to be low, an outbreak investigation was launched to assess the extent of transmission of influenza A virus subtype H7N7 from chickens to humans. All workers in poultry farms, poultry farmers, and their families were asked to report signs of conjunctivitis or influenza-like illness. People with complaints were tested for influenza virus type A subtype H7 (A/H7) infection and completed a health questionnaire about type of symptoms, duration of illness, and possible exposures to infected poultry. 453 people had health complaints--349 reported conjunctivitis, 90 had influenza-like illness, and 67 had other complaints. We detected A/H7 in conjunctival samples from 78 (26.4%) people with conjunctivitis only, in five (9.4%) with influenza-like illness and conjunctivitis, in two (5.4%) with influenza-like illness only, and in four (6%) who reported other symptoms. Most positive samples had been collected within 5 days of symptom onset. A/H7 infection was confirmed in three contacts (of 83 tested), one of whom developed influenza-like illness. Six people had influenza A/H3N2 infection. After 19 people had been diagnosed with the infection, all workers received mandatory influenza virus vaccination and prophylactic treatment with oseltamivir. More than half (56%) of A/H7 infections reported here arose before the vaccination and treatment programme. We noted an unexpectedly high number of transmissions of avian influenza A virus subtype H7N7 to people directly involved in handling infected poultry, and we noted evidence for person-to-person transmission. Our data emphasise the importance of adequate surveillance, outbreak preparedness, and pandemic planning.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Virulence
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Virulence
                Journal ID (publisher-id): KVIR
                Journal ID (publisher-id): kvir20
                Title: Virulence
                Publisher: Taylor & Francis
                ISSN (Print): 2150-5594
                ISSN (Electronic): 2150-5608
                Publication date Collection: 15 August 2013
                Publication date (Electronic): 16 July 2013
                Publication date PMC-release: 16 July 2013
                Volume: 4
                Issue: 6
                Pages: 441-452
                Affiliations
                Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut; Federal Research Institute for Animal Health; Institute of Molecular Biology; Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence to: Thomas C Mettenleiter, Email: thomas.mettenleiter@ 123456fli.bund.de
                Article
                Publisher ID: 10925710
                DOI: 10.4161/viru.25710
                PMC ID: 5359749
                PubMed ID: 23863606
                SO-VID: 7c1f7f3c-c670-4dd0-8ef2-c04e5ce12aed
                Copyright © Copyright © 2013 Landes Bioscience
                License:

                This is an open-access article licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported License. The article may be redistributed, reproduced, and reused for non-commercial purposes, provided the original source is properly cited.

                History
                Date received : 02 May 2013
                Date revision received : 09 July 2013
                Date accepted : 10 July 2013
                Page count
                Pages: 12
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Keywords: avian influenza virus,poultry,proteolytic cleavage site,virulence determinants
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Keywords: avian influenza virus, poultry, proteolytic cleavage site, virulence determinants

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