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Abstract
Species-rich grassland and heathland communities still occur in low-intensity farming
systems in many European countries. Gradually, such systems have either been abandoned
or more intensively exploited, with a subsequent decrease in species numbers. Until
recently, it was thought that restoration of these communities would be straightforward.
However, abiotic constraints (with respect to eutrophication and acidification) have
hampered restoration more than previously thought. Moreover, very recent research
has revealed that biotic constraints can also be important: many plant species are
not present in the soil seed bank and their dispersal is limited in the present fragmented
landscape.