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      Consumption of rice, acceptability and sensory qualities of fortified rice amongst consumers of social safety net rice in Nepal

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          Abstract

          Introduction

          Micronutrient deficiencies are prevalent in Nepal where starchy foods constitute a large proportion of diets and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods is inadequate. We conducted a study to determine whether rice would be an appropriate vehicle for micronutrient fortification in Nepal.

          Materials and methods

          In Bajura in remote rural Nepal, we conducted a household survey to characterize rice intakes in 195 households, and a double-blinded acceptability test with 177 social safety net rice consumers ≥18 years of age. Of these, 168 tasted fortified and unfortified rice to assess whether respondents could differentiate between fortified and non-fortified rice and their sensory properties. Rice was fortified by blending hot extruded kernels containing 6 micronutrients together with non-fortified rice at a 1:99 ratio. We used binomial tests to assess whether participants could correctly differentiate fortified rice, from non-fortified rice and paired t-tests to compare scores for sensory qualities of cooked fortified and non-fortified rice. We used multiple regression to test associations between per capita consumption and age, gender, wealth and food security.

          Results

          Per capita consumption of rice (median 216g/day, IQR 144.0, 288.0) did not vary by wealth but was +52.08g, (95% CI 10.43, 93.72) higher amongst moderately to severely food insecure households compared with food secure / mildly food insecure. Most respondents could not differentiate fortified rice from non-fortified rice: 37.5% identified uncooked fortified rice and 39.3% cooked rice, which was not different from the 33% expected by chance ( p = 0.22 and p = 0.09 respectively). The sensory qualities of fortified rice were acceptable (scoring 3.9 out of 5) and did not differ from non-fortified rice ( p>0.05).

          Conclusion

          A rice fortification programme implemented through the Nepal Food Corporation’s social safety nets has potential because purchase and consumption of rice is high and fortified rice is acceptable among consumers in remote food insecure areas of Nepal.

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          Most cited references50

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          Maternal and child undernutrition and overweight in low-income and middle-income countries

          The Lancet, 382(9890), 427-451
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            • Article: not found

            Maternal and child undernutrition: global and regional exposures and health consequences.

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              • Article: not found

              An overview of global rice production, supply, trade, and consumption.

              Rice is the staple food for over half the world's population. Approximately 480 million metric tons of milled rice is produced annually. China and India alone account for ∼50% of the rice grown and consumed. Rice provides up to 50% of the dietary caloric supply for millions living in poverty in Asia and is, therefore, critical for food security. It is becoming an important food staple in both Latin America and Africa. Record increases in rice production have been observed since the start of the Green Revolution. However, rice remains one of the most protected food commodities in world trade. Rice is a poor source of vitamins and minerals, and losses occur during the milling process. Populations that subsist on rice are at high risk of vitamin and mineral deficiency. Improved technologies to fortify rice have the potential to address these deficiencies and their associated adverse health effects. With the rice industry consolidating in many countries, there are opportunities to fortify a significant share of rice for distribution or for use in government safety net programs that target those most in need, especially women and children. Multisectoral approaches are needed for the promotion and implementation of rice fortification in countries.

                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SoftwareRole: SupervisionRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Formal analysisRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: MethodologyRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                3 October 2019
                2019
                : 14
                : 10
                : e0222903
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Nutrition Section, UN World Food Programme Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal
                [2 ] Department of Population Health, London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine, London, England, United Kingdom
                [3 ] Department of Food Technology and Quality Control, Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development, Kathmandu, Nepal
                [4 ] Institute for Global Health, University College London, London, England, United Kingdom
                CSIR-Foood Research Institute, GHANA
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: Four of the authors of this study (AR, MRM, PKC and NMS) were employed as consultants by United Nations World Food Programme (WFP), Nepal during the implementation of this study and PCW was employed by the Government of Nepal Department of Food Technology and Quality Control (DTFQC). Although WFP Nepal and the Nepal DFTQC are involved in the developing Nepal rice fortification programme, neither has any financial interest in the development or marketing of fortified rice in Nepal. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and material.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7430-3424
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-1735-3684
                Article
                PONE-D-19-17897
                10.1371/journal.pone.0222903
                6776338
                31581257
                7e418ed1-f2c3-4dc5-a086-eb77911c3d85
                © 2019 Rai et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 25 June 2019
                : 25 August 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 5, Pages: 17
                Funding
                This study was funded by United Nations World Food Programme, Nepal ( https://www1.wfp.org/countries/nepal). The funders provided financial and technical support in the study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish and preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Plants
                Grasses
                Rice
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Animal Studies
                Experimental Organism Systems
                Plant and Algal Models
                Rice
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Physiology
                Physiological Processes
                Food Consumption
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Physiology
                Physiological Processes
                Food Consumption
                Research and Analysis Methods
                Research Design
                Survey Research
                Surveys
                People and Places
                Geographical Locations
                Asia
                Nepal
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Agriculture
                Crop Science
                Crops
                Cereal Crops
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Nutrition
                Diet
                Food
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Nutrition
                Diet
                Food
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Nutrition
                Diet
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Nutrition
                Diet
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Agriculture
                Livestock
                Custom metadata
                All relevant data files are available from figshare (DOI: 10.6084/m9.figshare.9888155; URL: https://figshare.com/articles/_/9888155).

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                Uncategorized

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