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      Canine visceral leishmaniasis: Diagnosis and management of the reservoir living among us

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          Abstract

          This article reviews essential topics of canine visceral leishmaniasis (CVL) due to Leishmania infantum infection. It focuses on the current serological and molecular diagnostic methods used in epidemiological research and veterinary clinics to diagnose CVL and includes new point-of-care (POC) tests under development. The efficacy of different treatment regimens on the clinical improvement and infectiousness of dogs is also addressed. In the last section, the review provides a critical appraisal of the effectiveness of different control measures that have been implemented to curb disease transmission.

          Author summary

          Dogs are the principal reservoir hosts of L. infantum and consequently play a critical role in the transmission cycle of urban VL, which also affects humans. This review provides updated information on important topics such as diagnostic tests and dog treatments that improve dog health and decrease their transmission efficacy to insect vectors. A critical review of control measures is also provided.

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          Most cited references84

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          Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP): a rapid, accurate, and cost-effective diagnostic method for infectious diseases

          Yasuyoshi Mori, Tsugunori Notomi (2009)
          Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) is an established nucleic acid amplification method offering rapid, accurate, and cost-effective diagnosis of infectious diseases. This technology has been developed into commercially available detection kits for a variety of pathogens including bacteria and viruses. The current focus on LAMP methodology is as a diagnostic system to be employed in resource-limited laboratories in developing countries, where many fatal tropical diseases are endemic. The combination of LAMP and novel microfluidic technologies such as Lab-on-a-chip may facilitate the realization of genetic point-of-care testing systems to be used by both developed and developing countries in the near future. This review will describe the historical, current, and future developments of such technologies.
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            Directions for the diagnosis, clinical staging, treatment and prevention of canine leishmaniosis.

            L Solano-Gallego, A. Koutinas, G Miró … (2009)
            Canine leishmaniosis (CanL) due to Leishmania infantum is a life threatening zoonotic disease with a wide distribution in four continents and importance also in non-endemic regions. The purpose of this report is to present a consensus of opinions on the diagnosis, treatment, prognosis and prevention of CanL in order to standardize the management of this infection. CanL is a disease in which infection does not equal clinical illness due to the high prevalence of subclinical infection among endemic canine populations. The most useful diagnostic approaches include serology by quantitative techniques and PCR. High antibody levels are associated with severe parasitism and disease and are diagnostic of clinical leishmaniosis. However, the presence of lower antibody levels is not necessarily indicative of disease and further work-up is necessary to confirm CanL by other diagnostic methods such as cytology, histopathology and PCR. We propose a system of four clinical stages, based on clinical signs, clinicopathological abnormalities and serological status. Suitable therapy and expected prognosis are presented for each of the stages. The combination of meglumine antimoniate and allopurinol constitutes the first line pharmaceutical protocol. However, although most dogs recover clinically after therapy, complete elimination of the parasite is usually not achieved and infected dogs may eventually relapse. Follow-up of treated dogs with blood counts, serum biochemistry, urinalysis, serology and PCR is essential for prevention of relapses. Protection against sand fly bites by topical insecticides is effective in reducing infection, and recent development of vaccines has indicated that prevention by vaccination is feasible.
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              Canine leishmaniasis: epidemiological risk and the experimental model.

              Javier Moreno, Jorge Alvar (2002)
              Increasing risk factors are making zoonotic visceral leishmaniasis a growing public health concern in many countries. Domestic dogs constitute the main reservoir of Leishmania infantum and Leishmania chagasi, and play a key role in the transmission to humans. New reagents and tools allow the detailed investigation of canine leishmaniasis, permitting the monitoring of the immunological status of dogs in both natural and experimental infections. Such studies are essential to determine the basis of the canine protective immune response and to establish a laboratory model, a significant aspect for the development of vaccines against canine leishmaniasis.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Philippe Büscher: Role: Editor
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): PLoS Negl Trop Dis
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): PLoS Negl Trop Dis
                Journal ID (publisher-id): plos
                Journal ID (pmc): plosntds
                Title: PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases
                Publisher: Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                ISSN (Print): 1935-2727
                ISSN (Electronic): 1935-2735
                Publication date (Electronic): 11 January 2018
                Publication date Collection: January 2018
                Volume: 12
                Issue: 1
                Electronic Location Identifier: e0006082
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Internal Medicine-Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas, United States of America
                [2 ] Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
                [3 ] Parasite Disease Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
                [4 ] Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
                [5 ] Department of Immunology, Aggeu Magalhães Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
                [6 ] Veterinary Faculty, Animal Health Department, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
                Institute of Tropical Medicine, BELGIUM
                Author notes

                The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4160-302X
                Article
                Publisher ID: PNTD-D-17-01146
                DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0006082
                PMC ID: 5764232
                PubMed ID: 29324838
                SO-VID: 7f1a37f3-cbc6-4a52-ba6d-e7b9af327b41
                Copyright © © 2018 Travi et al
                License:

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 0, Pages: 13
                Funding
                The authors received no specific funding for this work.
                Categories
                Subject: Review
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Organisms
                Subject: Eukaryota
                Subject: Animals
                Subject: Vertebrates
                Subject: Amniotes
                Subject: Mammals
                Subject: Dogs
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Veterinary Science
                Subject: Veterinary Medicine
                Subject: Veterinary Diagnostics
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Parasitic Diseases
                Subject: Biology and Life Sciences
                Subject: Organisms
                Subject: Eukaryota
                Subject: Protozoans
                Subject: Parasitic Protozoans
                Subject: Leishmania
                Subject: Leishmania Infantum
                Subject: Research and Analysis Methods
                Subject: Immunologic Techniques
                Subject: Immunoassays
                Subject: Enzyme-Linked Immunoassays
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
                Subject: Serology
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Infectious Diseases
                Subject: Infectious Disease Control
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Tropical Diseases
                Subject: Neglected Tropical Diseases
                Subject: Leishmaniasis
                Subject: Kala-Azar
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Parasitic Diseases
                Subject: Protozoan Infections
                Subject: Leishmaniasis
                Subject: Kala-Azar
                Subject: Medicine and Health Sciences
                Subject: Infectious Diseases
                Subject: Zoonoses
                Subject: Leishmaniasis
                Subject: Kala-Azar

                ScienceOpen disciplines: Infectious disease & Microbiology
                Data availability:
                ScienceOpen disciplines: Infectious disease & Microbiology

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