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      Isolation and Characterization of a Shewanella Phage–Host System from the Gut of the Tunicate, Ciona intestinalis

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          Abstract

          Outnumbering all other biological entities on earth, bacteriophages (phages) play critical roles in structuring microbial communities through bacterial infection and subsequent lysis, as well as through horizontal gene transfer. While numerous studies have examined the effects of phages on free-living bacterial cells, much less is known regarding the role of phage infection in host-associated biofilms, which help to stabilize adherent microbial communities. Here we report the cultivation and characterization of a novel strain of Shewanella fidelis from the gut of the marine tunicate Ciona intestinalis, inducible prophages from the S. fidelis genome, and a strain-specific lytic phage recovered from surrounding seawater. In vitro biofilm assays demonstrated that lytic phage infection affects biofilm formation in a process likely influenced by the accumulation and integration of the extracellular DNA released during cell lysis, similar to the mechanism that has been previously shown for prophage induction.

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          Most cited references54

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          NIH Image to ImageJ: 25 years of image analysis.

          For the past 25 years NIH Image and ImageJ software have been pioneers as open tools for the analysis of scientific images. We discuss the origins, challenges and solutions of these two programs, and how their history can serve to advise and inform other software projects.
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            An immunomodulatory molecule of symbiotic bacteria directs maturation of the host immune system.

            The mammalian gastrointestinal tract harbors a complex ecosystem consisting of countless bacteria in homeostasis with the host immune system. Shaped by evolution, this partnership has potential for symbiotic benefit. However, the identities of bacterial molecules mediating symbiosis remain undefined. Here we show that, during colonization of animals with the ubiquitous gut microorganism Bacteroides fragilis, a bacterial polysaccharide (PSA) directs the cellular and physical maturation of the developing immune system. Comparison with germ-free animals reveals that the immunomodulatory activities of PSA during B. fragilis colonization include correcting systemic T cell deficiencies and T(H)1/T(H)2 imbalances and directing lymphoid organogenesis. A PSA mutant of B. fragilis does not restore these immunologic functions. PSA presented by intestinal dendritic cells activates CD4+ T cells and elicits appropriate cytokine production. These findings provide a molecular basis for host-bacterial symbiosis and reveal the archetypal molecule of commensal bacteria that mediates development of the host immune system.
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              A characterization of DNA release in Pseudomonas aeruginosa cultures and biofilms.

              Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces extracellular DNA which functions as a cell-to-cell interconnecting matrix component in biofilms. Comparison of extracellular DNA and chromosomal DNA by the use of polymerase chain reaction and Southern analysis suggested that the extracellular DNA is similar to whole-genome DNA. Evidence that the extracellular DNA in P. aeruginosa biofilms and cultures is generated via lysis of a subpopulation of the bacteria was obtained through experiments where extracellular beta-galactosidase released from lacZ-containing P. aeruginosa strains was assessed. Experiments with the wild type and lasIrhlI, pqsA, pqsL and fliMpilA mutants indicated that the extracellular DNA is generated via a mechanism which is dependent on acyl homoserine lactone and Pseudomonas quinolone signalling, as well as on flagella and type IV pili. Microscopic investigation of flow chamber-grown wild-type P. aeruginosa biofilms stained with different DNA stains suggested that the extracellular DNA is located primarily in the stalks of mushroom-shaped multicellular structures, with a high concentration especially in the outer part of the stalks forming a border between the stalk-forming bacteria and the cap-forming bacteria. Biofilms formed by lasIrhlI, pqsA and fliMpilA mutants contained less extracellular DNA than biofilms formed by the wild type, and the mutant biofilms were more susceptible to treatment with sodium dodecyl sulphate than the wild-type biofilm.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Academic Editor
                Role: Academic Editor
                Journal
                Viruses
                Viruses
                viruses
                Viruses
                MDPI
                1999-4915
                22 March 2017
                March 2017
                : 9
                : 3
                : 60
                Affiliations
                [1 ]College of Marine Science, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA; bleigh@ 123456mail.usf.edu (B.L.); mya@ 123456usf.edu (M.B.)
                [2 ]Department of Pediatrics, University of South Florida, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, USA; ckarrer@ 123456mail.usf.edu (C.K.); jcannon@ 123456health.usf.edu (J.P.C.)
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: LJDishaw@ 123456health.usf.edu ; Tel.: +1-727-553-3608
                Article
                viruses-09-00060
                10.3390/v9030060
                5371815
                28327522
                80fabfc9-0f4b-422a-bbb7-3a0f284188c7
                © 2017 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 29 January 2017
                : 17 March 2017
                Categories
                Article

                Microbiology & Virology
                shewanella,bacteriophage,biofilm,extracellular dna
                Microbiology & Virology
                shewanella, bacteriophage, biofilm, extracellular dna

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