Presentation of Case
In April 2011, a 68-year-old man presented himself at our research clinic in rural
Tanzania with a three-month persistent productive cough, chest pain, night sweats,
and recurrent nonmassive haemoptysis. He denied fever, night sweats, weight loss,
and any recent contact with a known tuberculosis case. A prior treatment with a broad-spectrum
antibiotic had not been successful. The patient reported having been treated for tuberculosis,
diagnosed by sputum smear ten years ago. On examination he was afebrile, in a reduced
general condition with a body mass index of 17.1 kg/m2. Other findings were bilateral
reduced breath sounds and mild clubbing. Testing for HIV with two rapid tests (SD
Bioline HIV 1/2 3.0 and Determine HIV-1/2) was negative. Posteroanterior chest radiography
in an erect position showed a cavity of 60 mm×73 mm diameter in the right upper lobe
containing an intracavitary focal mass of 47 mm×31 mm diameter with adjacent moon-shaped
radiolucency (Figure 1). A second radiography in a supine position showed a changed
position of this focal mass (Figure 2). A chest x-ray of the previous TB episode was
not available for comparison. Smear microscopy of early morning and spot sputum after
Ziehl-Neelsen stain was negative for acid-fast bacilli. A nucleic acid amplification
test (Xpert MTB/RIF) did not detect Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Both the early morning
and spot sputum samples were subsequently cultured on solid (Löwenstein Jensen) and
in liquid (MGIT) media, neither of which showed mycobacterial growth after eight and
six weeks, respectively. In order to isolate Aspergillus, a sabouraud dextrose agar
was inoculated directly with sputum, but only Enterobacter cloacae could be found.
Due to lack of facilities, neither an ELISA for IgG antibodies to Aspergillus nor
an Aspergillus precipitin test could be performed.
10.1371/journal.pntd.0002352.g001
Figure 1
Chest radiography showing a fungus ball with an air crescent in the right upper lobe.
10.1371/journal.pntd.0002352.g002
Figure 2
Chest radiography in supine position showing a change of position of the fungus ball.
Based on radiographies, a diagnosis of single pulmonary aspergilloma was established,
but we could not exclude that the symptoms were caused by tuberculosis reactivation
or reinfection. With negative sputum smears, chest radiography findings consistent
with tuberculosis, and a lack of response to a trial broad-spectrum antimicrobial
agent, our patient fulfilled the WHO criteria for sputum smear–negative tuberculosis.
Without options for surgical treatment of pulmonary aspergilloma, we were now faced
with the decision of either starting medication for pulmonary aspergilloma or sending
the patient for tuberculosis treatment. Considering unavailability of sputum culture
results at this point and our setting with high prevalence of tuberculosis, we presented
the case to the National Tuberculosis and Leprosy Program (NTLP) which initiated six-month
standard tuberculosis treatment according to national guidelines, which implies prescription
of rifampin, isoniazid, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide for two months, followed by rifampin
and isoniazid for four months. After six months of antituberculosis therapy, the patient
was still in a reduced condition, complaining about productive cough and chest pain,
but no haemoptysis or night sweats. His body mass index had increased to 19.2 kg/m2.
Radiographies, however, did not show any improvement. Because of the persistent symptomology,
the patient was subsequently started on antifungal treatment with itraconazole 200
mg daily for six months. At the end of this period, the treatment was extended for
another six months because the patient had reported that the dispensary had not been
able to provide him with medication continuously and therefore he had not been able
to take medication for the last three months of treatment. At the last follow-up in
October 2012 we noticed a clinical improvement of the chest pain and no productive
cough despite a follow-up radiography not showing any changes.
Case Discussion
Pulmonary Aspergilloma
Since the common term mycetoma applies accurately to soft tissue infections, it is
more precise to use pulmonary aspergilloma to describe an intracavitary fungal mycelial
growth in the lung. Pulmonary aspergilloma caused by A. fumigatus is the most widespread
of the noninvasive forms of pulmonary aspergillosis and develops in preexisting lung
cavities, most frequently tuberculous caverns as seen in our case [1], [2]. The aspergilloma
(fungus ball) consists of masses of fungal mycelia, inflammatory cells, fibrin, mucus,
and tissue debris [3]. The diagnosis is usually made clinically and radiographically
without lung biopsy. Mild haemoptysis is commonly reported as the main symptom, but
most patients are asymptomatic. Bleeding is usually caused by local invasion and endotoxic
or mechanical irritation of exposed bronchial blood vessels. Symptoms like cough and
dyspnoea are more likely related to underlying diseases, making a clear diagnosis
difficult [1]. As with our patient, 50% of pulmonary aspergilloma sputum cultures
for Aspergillus spp. are negative [2]. Serum IgG antibodies to Aspergillus are positive
in most cases, but may be false negative in patients under corticosteroid therapy
or in rare cases of pulmonary aspergilloma caused by other species than A. fumigatus
[1], [3]. Chest radiographies show intracavitary mass (fungus ball) with an air crescent
(Monod sign) in about two-thirds of the cases [2], [4]. This pattern is mostly localized
in the upper lobe and can change position with gravity like in our radiographies.
Computed tomography can be useful to detect smaller lesions that may not be apparent
on conventional radiographies. An increase of wall thickness of the preexisting cavity
suggests secondary infection [4]. Risk factors for poor prognosis of pulmonary aspergilloma
include the severity of the underlying lung disease, increase in size or number of
lesions, and immunosuppression [1], [3].
Treatment Difficulties
The first major decision is whether therapy of the aspergilloma is required. With
10% of asymptomatic cases resolving spontaneously, treatment usually becomes necessary
only when the patient develops symptoms [5]. Definitive treatment for an aspergilloma
is surgery of the affected lung, which is indicated in case of recurrent or severe
haemoptysis. However, surgical resection of the affected lung is associated with considerable
morbidity and mortality. The mortality rates for surgical resection in symptomatic
patients vary between 4–8%, the morbidity approaches 25% [6]–[8]. These rates can
be explained partly because of the poor pulmonary function of many patients with aspergilloma.
Additionally, the disease is rarely confined to the cavitary lesion seen on chest
radiography and the adjacent lung and pleura are also involved in the inflammatory
response [7]. Lobectomy, segmentectomy, pneumonectomy, and cavernostomy can be used
as surgical procedures. The risks of compromised pulmonary function, bronchopleural
fistula, bleeding, and infection of the pleural space may outweigh the benefits, depending
on the individual patient. In inoperable patients, primary treatment with antifungal
agents seems to be an option. To date, there is no consistent evidence about the appropriate
pharmacological treatment of single pulmonary aspergilloma. The data guiding the management
of the disease are based on uncontrolled trials and case reports [9]. Inhaled, intracavitary,
and endobronchial instillations of antifungal agents have shown inconsistent success
[1], [10]. Among oral antifungals, itraconazole seems to be most effective due to
its high tissue penetration, but only small studies have shown benefit so far. Because
of its slow effect, treatment regimens have to last at least six months. The rates
of symptomatic improvement vary from 61% to 71%, and those of radiological improvement
from 14% to 23% [9]–[12]. However, due to the unpredictable natural history of aspergilloma,
it is difficult to attribute clinical improvement to a specific treatment. Parallel
treatment with standard tuberculosis medication should be avoided, because of the
well-documented interaction between itraconazole and rifampin which may lead to therapeutic
failure [13]. The role of newer antifungal azoles such as voriconazole in the treatment
of aspergilloma has yet to be determined [1].
The Presenting Case
There is no epidemiological data on pulmonary aspergilloma in Tanzania and sub-Saharan
Africa. However, the high burden of tuberculosis in these countries suggests a considerable
number of unreported cases. The case described here should not illustrate a new treatment
approach but emphasize the limitations and challenges in diagnosis and treatment due
to resource limitations, the tuberculosis epidemic, and lack of consensus on therapeutic
approach. The means used in this case surpassed the resources of an average rural
setting, where we would have encountered even more limitations. Our initial diagnosis
was purely based on the typical radiological findings illustrated in Figure 1 and
Figure 2. Recurrent nonmassive haemoptysis and other clinical symptoms at the first
consultation were consistent with pulmonary aspergilloma and other pulmonary conditions,
including tuberculosis. Unfortunately, we could not compare radiographies with the
tuberculosis episode that the patient had ten years before and distinguish between
new and old radiological manifestations. Consequently, our case fulfilled all criteria
for a sputum smear–negative case according to national standards [14] and the international
standards for tuberculosis care in high epidemic countries [15], and the NTLP decided
to start treatment despite of the unavailability of mycobacterial cultures at this
point. If we had attributed the symptoms purely to pulmonary aspergilloma, surgical
resection would have been the best treatment choice. Missing options of surgical treatment
due to lack of resources and epidemiological concerns led to the decision to treat
pharmacologically, first for tuberculosis and subsequently for pulmonary aspergilloma.
With total treatment duration of at least 12 months, it was difficult to guarantee
proper adherence to both treatments. In our case, insufficient drug supply, as well
as logistical difficulties in making the antifungal drugs available for the patient,
led us to extend the antifungal therapy for another six months. It remains unclear
if the treatment with tuberculostatica, antifungal medication, or the natural history
of pulmonary aspergilloma caused the clinical improvement of the patient, whose symptoms
disappeared except residual chest pain. Retrospectively, although it was initially
not possible to exclude a smear-negative tuberculosis case, treatment of pulmonary
aspergilloma should have been given priority while TB treatment should have been started
only in the case of positive cultures.
The challenges in differential diagnosis and therapy of pulmonary aspergilloma demonstrated
in this case underline the necessity for incorporating management of this frequently
neglected TB-associated disease into national TB treatment guidelines in endemic countries.
Learning Points
Pulmonary aspergilloma develops most frequently in residual tuberculous cavities.
Symptoms are often unspecific, making imaging the cornerstone of the diagnosis.
A mobile intracavitary mass with an air crescent are pathognomonic x-ray findings.
In symptomatic patients, surgical resection is the treatment of choice.
Antifungal treatment can be considered as a therapeutic option, if surgery is not
possible.
Parallel treatment with rifampin and itraconazole should be avoided because of drug
interactions.