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      Taxonomic revision of the long-nosed armadillos, Genus Dasypus Linnaeus, 1758 (Mammalia, Cingulata)

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          Abstract

          Dasypus is the most speciose genus of the order Cingulata, including approximately 40% of known living armadillos. Nine species are currently recognized, although comprehensive analyses of the entire genus have never been done. Our aim is to revise the taxonomy of the long-nosed armadillos and properly define the taxa. We examined 2126 specimens of Dasypus preserved in 39 different museum collections, including 17 type specimens. Three complementary methods were applied to explore morphological datasets both qualitatively and quantitatively. Qualitative morphological variation in discrete characters was assessed by direct observations of specimens. Linear morphometric variation was based on external data and cranial measurements of 887 adult skulls. The shape and size of the skull was abstracted through two-dimensional geometric morphometric analyses of dorsal, lateral and ventral views of respectively 421, 211, and 220 adult specimens. Our results converge on the recognition of eight living species ( D. beniensis, D. kappleri, D. mazzai, D. novemcinctus, D. pastasae, D. pilosus, D. sabanicola, and D. septemcinctus), and three subspecies of D. septemcinctus ( D. s. septemcinctus, D. s. hybridus, and a new subspecies from Cordoba described here). Information on type material, diagnosis, distribution, and taxonomic comments for each taxon are provided. We designate a lectotype for D. novemcinctus; and a neotype for Loricatus hybridus (= D. septemcinctus hybridus).

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          SPECIATION IN MAMMALS AND THE GENETIC SPECIES CONCEPT.

          We define a genetic species as a group of genetically compatible interbreeding natural populations that is genetically isolated from other such groups. This focus on genetic isolation rather than reproductive isolation distinguishes the Genetic Species Concept from the Biological Species Concept. Recognition of species that are genetically isolated (but not reproductively isolated) results in an enhanced understanding of biodiversity and the nature of speciation as well as speciation-based issues and evolution of mammals. We review criteria and methods for recognizing species of mammals and explore a theoretical scenario, the Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller (BDM) model, for understanding and predicting genetic diversity and speciation in mammals. If the BDM model is operating in mammals, then genetically defined phylogroups would be predicted to occur within species defined by morphology, and phylogroups experiencing stabilizing selection will evolve genetic isolation without concomitant morphological diversification. Such species will be undetectable using classical skin and skull morphology (Morphological Species Concept). Using cytochrome-b data from sister species of mammals recognized by classical morphological studies, we estimated the number of phylogroups that exist within mammalian species and hypothesize that there will be >2,000 currently unrecognized species of mammals. Such an underestimation significantly affects conclusions on the nature of speciation in mammals, barriers associated with evolution of genetic isolation, estimates of biodiversity, design of conservation initiatives, zoonoses, and so on. A paradigm shift relative to this and other speciation-based issues will be needed. Data that will be effective in detecting these "morphologically cryptic genetic species" are genetic, especially DNA-sequence data. Application of the Genetic Species Concept uses genetic data from mitochondrial and nuclear genomes to identify species and species boundaries, the extent to which the integrity of the gene pool is protected, nature of hybridization (if present), and introgression. Genetic data are unique in understanding species because the use of genetic data 1) can quantify genetic divergence from different aspects of the genome (mitochondrial and nuclear genes, protein coding genes, regulatory genes, mobile DNA, microsatellites, chromosomal rearrangements, heterochromatin, etc.); 2) can provide divergence values that increase with time, providing an estimate of time since divergence; 3) can provide a population genetics perspective; 4) is less subject to convergence and parallelism relative to other sets of characters; 5) can identify monophyly, sister taxa, and presence or absence of introgression; and 6) can accurately identify hybrid individuals (kinship and source of hybrid individuals, F(1)s, backcrosses, direction of hybridization, and in concert with other data identify which hybrids are sterile or fertile). The proposed definition of the Genetic Species Concept is more compatible with a description of biodiversity of mammals than is "reproductively isolated species." Genetic profiles of mammalian species will result in a genetic description of species and mammalian diversity, and such studies are being accelerated by technological advances that reduce cost and increase speed and efficiency of generating genetic data. We propose that this genetic revolution remain museum- and voucher specimen-based and that new names are based on a holotype (including associated tissues) deposited in an accredited museum.
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            Mammals of Bolivia, taxonomy and distribution

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              Bureaucratic mischief: recognizing endangered species and subspecies.

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: Funding acquisitionRole: ResourcesRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                6 April 2018
                2018
                : 13
                : 4
                : e0195084
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Laboratório de mamíferos, Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
                [2 ] Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia), Departamento de Sistemática e Ecologia, Centro de Ciências Exatas e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, Campus I, João Pessoa, PB, Brazil
                [3 ] Integrative Research Center, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, IL, United States of America
                Universidade Federal da Bahia, BRAZIL
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                [¤]

                Current address: Key Laboratory of Zoological Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chaoyang District, Beijing, China

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4643-2293
                Article
                PONE-D-17-20116
                10.1371/journal.pone.0195084
                5889077
                29624590
                8472d694-8717-4db3-a5d8-143a0f969731
                © 2018 Feijó et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 25 May 2017
                : 28 February 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 39, Tables: 8, Pages: 69
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002322, Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior;
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100003593, Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico;
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: American Museum of Natural History Collection Study Grant
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Field Museum of Natural History’s Brown Fund
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by: Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative
                Award ID: 2018PB0040
                Award Recipient :
                Funded by CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior) (AF), CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico) (AF), AMNH Grants Program (Collection Study) (AF), Field Museum of Natural History’s Brown Fund for Mammal Research, and Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative (Grant number 2018PB0040).
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Anatomy
                Musculoskeletal System
                Skeleton
                Skull
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Anatomy
                Musculoskeletal System
                Skeleton
                Skull
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Amniotes
                Mammals
                Eutheria
                Xenarthra
                Armadillos
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Taxonomy
                Computer and Information Sciences
                Data Management
                Taxonomy
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Zoology
                Animal Anatomy
                Tails
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Anatomy
                Digestive System
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                Mandible
                Medicine and Health Sciences
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                Digestive System
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                Mandible
                Research and Analysis Methods
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                Ecology and Environmental Sciences
                Ecology
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