Prescribed Norms by Cheryl Krasnick Warsh is an exhaustive synthesis of the secondary
literature that deals with the history of women and health in North America. Drawing
on a wide body of interdisciplinary work, Warsh organises her study thematically into
three sections which explore separate but related issues:for example, she examines
the changing social and cultural meanings of women’s biological functions; she looks
at how technology and medicine have intervened in and, in some cases, taken control
of women’s bodies and their knowledge of them; and she investigates the complicated
lives of women who worked as nurses and doctors. Tongue-in-cheek, Warsh concludes
her study with the suggestion that the mysteries of women’s bodies, which persist
in spite of the efforts of some of the most pre-eminent scientists, are best explained
through ‘chaos or complexity theory’ (p. 272). A theory that suggests that knowing
‘a system’ and predicting its future state is both impossible and futile.
The book is divided into three parts. Part one, entitled ‘Rituals’ deals with menstruation
and menopause – two life events that have received a great deal of attention. Different
cultures assigned vastly diverse meanings to menstruation and menopause. Menstruation
in many societies was and continues to be perceived in very negative ways. To illustrate,
the Romans regarded ‘menstrual blood with fear and loathing’ (p. 15); in Europe during
the seventeenth century, menstrual blood was believed to cause leprosy, epilepsy,
or defects in children; and Victorian culture saw menstruation as unclean and diseased.
Even today, for many young women, menstruation remains cloaked in mystery and embarrassment,
and its first appearance is often marked by dread and shame. Similarly, menopause
has also been transformed by cultural expectations and understandings. In North American
society especially, menopause has become increasingly medicalised. It has shifted
from being seen as a life event to an illness that can be ‘cured’ through medical
intervention and drug treatments. The association of menopause with ‘old age’ has
perpetuated negative cultural perceptions.
Part two looks at technology as a way in which to examine the evolution of childbirth
in North American society. Warsh observes that ‘while the biological event has not
changed substantially for most women, the socio-medical focus has’ (p. 77). In the
nineteenth century, physicians began to see obstetrics as a source of reliable patients
and predictable practice, and the twentieth and twenty-first centuries have increasingly
witnessed medical interference in the birthing process alongside the development of
biomedical science and technology. Technology has enabled parents and healthcare professionals
to peer into the ‘dark recesses’ of the womb and examine the foetus almost from the
moment of inception, which has led to the objectification of the womb and the obfuscation
of the mother. However, assisted reproduction and its associated technology have also
broadened the opportunities for people to form non-traditional families.
The final section is a broad overview of the roles of women as doctors and nurses.
Firstly, Warsh outlines the glacially slow entry of women into medical schools, and
notes that the de-segregation of medical schools effectively ensured that fewer women
practised medicine and that those that did had to adopt a masculine character in order
to survive. This section then concludes with a chapter on nursing, tracing its gradual
professionalisation from an unregulated job performed by women with little training
to one that is highly organised and requires a post-secondary education. Notably,
Warsh remarks that female nurses and doctors, in spite of their shared gender identity,
failed to experience female solidarity. The work of doctors and nurses was coded as
masculine and feminine respectively. Female doctors were inherently transgressive
as women doing a masculine job and, of course, as doctors they could not be nurses,
and were thus, positioned as outsidersboth literally and figuratively.
This work is an invaluable text for anyone teaching or interested in learning about
women and health, particularly in a comparative context. Did national frameworks offer
different opportunities and modes of surveillance and discipline for women? Warsh’s
book is accessible and cuts through the professional jargon employed by both doctors
and historians. This is also an important book for those women who are interested
in knowing about or understanding socially hegemonic beliefs about their bodies. Warsh
deals with those bodily functions that have most fascinated and frightened women –
those events that shape the landscape of women’s lives and the myths and rituals that
surround them. With a great deal of wit and humour, Warsh addresses extremely sensitive
topics, and in so doing, makes it easy for people to locate themselves and their experiences
within the pages of her book.