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      Augmentation of Creatine in the Heart

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          Abstract

          Creatine is a principle component of the creatine kinase (CK) phosphagen system common to all vertebrates. It is found in excitable cells, such as cardiomyocytes, where it plays an important role in the buffering and transport of chemical energy to ensure that supply meets the dynamic demands of the heart. Multiple components of the CK system, including intracellular creatine levels, are reduced in heart failure, while ischaemia and hypoxia represent acute crises of energy provision. Elevation of myocardial creatine levels has therefore been suggested as potentially beneficial, however, achieving this goal is not trivial. This mini-review outlines the evidence in support of creatine elevation and critically examines the pharmacological approaches that are currently available. In particular, dietary creatine-supplementation does not sufficiently elevate creatine levels in the heart due to subsequent down-regulation of the plasma membrane creatine transporter (CrT). Attempts to increase passive diffusion and bypass the CrT, e.g. via creatine esters, have yet to be tested in the heart. However, studies in mice with genetic overexpression of the CrT demonstrate proof-of-principle that elevated creatine protects the heart from ischaemia-reperfusion injury. This suggests activation of the CrT as a major unmet pharmacological target. However, translation of this finding to the clinic will require a greater understanding of CrT regulation in health and disease and the development of small molecule activators.

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          Most cited references76

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          SLC6 neurotransmitter transporters: structure, function, and regulation.

          The neurotransmitter transporters (NTTs) belonging to the solute carrier 6 (SLC6) gene family (also referred to as the neurotransmitter-sodium-symporter family or Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporters) comprise a group of nine sodium- and chloride-dependent plasma membrane transporters for the monoamine neurotransmitters serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine), dopamine, and norepinephrine, and the amino acid neurotransmitters GABA and glycine. The SLC6 NTTs are widely expressed in the mammalian brain and play an essential role in regulating neurotransmitter signaling and homeostasis by mediating uptake of released neurotransmitters from the extracellular space into neurons and glial cells. The transporters are targets for a wide range of therapeutic drugs used in treatment of psychiatric diseases, including major depression, anxiety disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and epilepsy. Furthermore, psychostimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines have the SLC6 NTTs as primary targets. Beginning with the determination of a high-resolution structure of a prokaryotic homolog of the mammalian SLC6 transporters in 2005, the understanding of the molecular structure, function, and pharmacology of these proteins has advanced rapidly. Furthermore, intensive efforts have been directed toward understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in regulation of the activity of this important class of transporters, leading to new methodological developments and important insights. This review provides an update of these advances and their implications for the current understanding of the SLC6 NTTs.
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            Abnormal cardiac and skeletal muscle energy metabolism in patients with type 2 diabetes.

            It is well known that patients with type 2 diabetes have increased risk of cardiovascular disease, but it is not known whether they have underlying abnormalities in cardiac or skeletal muscle high-energy phosphate metabolism. We studied 21 patients with type 2 diabetes with no evidence of coronary artery disease or impaired cardiac function, as determined by echocardiography, and 15 age-, sex-, and body mass index-matched control subjects. Cardiac high-energy phosphate metabolites were measured at rest using 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). Skeletal muscle high-energy phosphate metabolites, intracellular pH, and oxygenation were measured using 31P MRS and near infrared spectrophotometry, respectively, before, during, and after exercise. Although their cardiac morphology, mass, and function appeared to be normal, the patients with diabetes had significantly lower phosphocreatine (PCr)/ATP ratios, at 1.50+/-0.11, than the healthy volunteers, at 2.30+/-0.12. The cardiac PCr/ATP ratios correlated negatively with the fasting plasma free fatty acid concentrations. Although skeletal muscle energetics and pH were normal at rest, PCr loss and pH decrease were significantly faster during exercise in the patients with diabetes, who had lower exercise tolerance. After exercise, PCr recovery was slower in the patients with diabetes and correlated with tissue reoxygenation times. The exercise times correlated negatively with the deoxygenation rates and the hemoglobin (Hb)A1c levels and the reoxygenation times correlated positively with the HbA1c levels. Type 2 diabetic patients with apparently normal cardiac function have impaired myocardial and skeletal muscle energy metabolism related to changes in circulating metabolic substrates.
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              Transport of energy in muscle: the phosphorylcreatine shuttle.

              In order to explain the insulin-like effect of exercise, it was proposed in 1951 that contracting muscle fibers liberate creatine, which acts to produce an acceptor effect--later called respiratory control--on the muscle mitochondria. The development of this notion paralleled the controversy between biochemists and physiologists over the delivery of energy for muscle contraction. With the demonstration of functional compartmentation of creatine kinase on the mitochondrion, it became clear that the actual form of energy transport in the muscle fiber is phosphorylcreatine. The finding of an isoenzyme of creatine phosphokinase attached to the M-line region of the myofibril revealed the peripheral receptor for the mitochondrially generated phosphorylcreatine. This established a molecular basis for a phosphorylcreatine-creatine shuttle for energy transport in heart and skeletal muscle and provided an explanation for the inability to demonstrate experimentally a direct relation between muscle activity and the concentrations of adenosine triphosphate and adenosine diphosphate.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Mini Rev Med Chem
                Mini Rev Med Chem
                MRMC
                Mini Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry
                Bentham Science Publishers
                1389-5575
                1875-5607
                January 2016
                January 2016
                : 16
                : 1
                : 19-28
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford,UK;
                [2 ]Department of Chemistry, Chemistry Research Laboratory, University of Oxford, Oxford,UK;
                [3 ]Department of Pharmacology, University of Oxford, Oxford,UK;
                [4 ]BHF Centre of Research Excellence, Oxford,UK
                Author notes
                [* ]Address correspondence to this author at the Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Wellcome Trust Centre for Human Genetics, Roosevelt Drive, Headington OX3 7BN, UK; Tel: ++44 1865 287603; Fax: ++44 1865 287664;, E-mail: clygate@ 123456well.ox.ac.uk
                [#]

                Authors contributed equally.

                Article
                MRMC-16-19
                10.2174/1389557515666150722102151
                4634222
                26202199
                86e9ffc8-89b9-421c-b540-9fd90d0d4888
                © 2016 Bentham Science Publishers

                This is an open access article licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Non-Commercial 4.0 International Public License (CC BY-NC 4.0) ( https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/legalcode ), which permits unrestricted, non-commercial use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the work is properly cited.

                History
                : 18 April 2015
                : 22 April 2015
                : 23 April 2015
                Categories
                Article

                Pharmaceutical chemistry
                creatine transporter,energetics,heart disease
                Pharmaceutical chemistry
                creatine transporter, energetics, heart disease

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