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      The Basics of Brain Development

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          Abstract

          Over the past several decades, significant advances have been made in our understanding of the basic stages and mechanisms of mammalian brain development. Studies elucidating the neurobiology of brain development span the levels of neural organization from the macroanatomic, to the cellular, to the molecular. Together this large body of work provides a picture of brain development as the product of a complex series of dynamic and adaptive processes operating within a highly constrained, genetically organized but constantly changing context. The view of brain development that has emerged from the developmental neurobiology literature presents both challenges and opportunities to psychologists seeking to understand the fundamental processes that underlie social and cognitive development, and the neural systems that mediate them. This chapter is intended to provide an overview of some very basic principles of brain development, drawn from contemporary developmental neurobiology, that may be of use to investigators from a wide range of disciplines.

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          Most cited references81

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          Neuronal subtype specification in the cerebral cortex.

          In recent years, tremendous progress has been made in understanding the mechanisms underlying the specification of projection neurons within the mammalian neocortex. New experimental approaches have made it possible to identify progenitors and study the lineage relationships of different neocortical projection neurons. An expanding set of genes with layer and neuronal subtype specificity have been identified within the neocortex, and their function during projection neuron development is starting to be elucidated. Here, we assess recent data regarding the nature of neocortical progenitors, review the roles of individual genes in projection neuron specification and discuss the implications for progenitor plasticity.
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            Neurons derived from radial glial cells establish radial units in neocortex.

            The neocortex of the adult brain consists of neurons and glia that are generated by precursor cells of the embryonic ventricular zone. In general, glia are generated after neurons during development, but radial glia are an exception to this rule. Radial glia are generated before neurogenesis and guide neuronal migration. Radial glia are mitotically active throughout neurogenesis, and disappear or become astrocytes when neuronal migration is complete. Although the lineage relationships of cortical neurons and glia have been explored, the clonal relationship of radial glia to other cortical cells remains unknown. It has been suggested that radial glia may be neuronal precursors, but this has not been demonstrated in vivo. We have used a retroviral vector encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein to label precursor cells in vivo and have examined clones 1-3 days later using morphological, immunohistochemical and electrophysiological techniques. Here we show that clones consist of mitotic radial glia and postmitotic neurons, and that neurons migrate along clonally related radial glia. Time-lapse images show that proliferative radial glia generate neurons. Our results support the concept that a lineage relationship between neurons and proliferative radial glia may underlie the radial organization of neocortex.
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              Microstructural maturation of the human brain from childhood to adulthood.

              Brain maturation is a complex process that continues well beyond infancy, and adolescence is thought to be a key period of brain rewiring. To assess structural brain maturation from childhood to adulthood, we charted brain development in subjects aged 5 to 30 years using diffusion tensor magnetic resonance imaging, a novel brain imaging technique that is sensitive to axonal packing and myelination and is particularly adept at virtually extracting white matter connections. Age-related changes were seen in major white matter tracts, deep gray matter, and subcortical white matter, in our large (n=202), age-distributed sample. These diffusion changes followed an exponential pattern of maturation with considerable regional variation. Differences observed in developmental timing suggest a pattern of maturation in which areas with fronto-temporal connections develop more slowly than other regions. These in vivo results expand upon previous postmortem and imaging studies and provide quantitative measures indicative of the progression and magnitude of regional human brain maturation.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                +1-858-534-154 , tjernigan@ucsd.edu
                Journal
                Neuropsychol Rev
                Neuropsychology Review
                Springer US (Boston )
                1040-7308
                1573-6660
                3 November 2010
                3 November 2010
                December 2010
                : 20
                : 4
                : 327-348
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Cognitive Science, Center for Human Development, University of California, San Diego, CA USA
                [2 ]Departments of Psychiatry and Radiology, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, CA USA
                [3 ]UCSD Center Human Development 0115, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093 USA
                Article
                9148
                10.1007/s11065-010-9148-4
                2989000
                21042938
                875c0097-f487-4455-8179-181e8d73a3cd
                © The Author(s) 2010
                History
                : 7 August 2010
                : 11 October 2010
                Categories
                Review
                Custom metadata
                © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010

                Clinical Psychology & Psychiatry
                myelination,magnetic resonance imaging,neurogenesis,diffusion weighted imaging,effects of experience on connectivity,brain development; maturation,genetic patterning of brain

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