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      A review of the Zoogonidae (Digenea: Microphalloidea) from fishes of the waters around New Caledonia, with the description of Overstreetia cribbi n. sp.

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      PeerJ
      PeerJ Inc.
      Zoogonidae, New Caledonia, Atherinomorus, Fish parasite, Digenea, Overstreetia cribbi n. sp.

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          Abstract

          New and published reports of zoogonid digeneans from New Caledonian waters are recorded, including a description of Overstreetia cribbi n. sp. from Atherinomorus lacunosus. This species differs from its congeners in the detail of its circum-oral spination and some metrical features. Other new records are of: Diphterostomum plectorhynchi Machida, Kamegai & Kuramochi, 2006 in Diagramma pictum; Parvipyrum acanthuri ( Pritchard, 1963) in Acanthurus dussumieri; Zoogonoides viviparus ( Olsson, 1868) in Lagocephalus sceleratus; Deretrema ? combesorum ( Bray & Justine, 2008a; Bray & Justine, 2008b) early ovigerous forms in Parupeneus pleurostigma; D? acutum ( Pritchard, 1963) in P. barberinus; and an unidentified immature zoogonid in P. multifasciatus. The newly reported specimens are illustrated and measurements given. The distribution of New Caledonian zoogonids is listed.

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          Phylogeny and classification of the Digenea (Platyhelminthes: Trematoda).

          Complete small subunit ribosomal RNA gene (ssrDNA) and partial (D1-D3) large subunit ribosomal RNA gene (lsrDNA) sequences were used to estimate the phylogeny of the Digenea via maximum parsimony and Bayesian inference. Here we contribute 80 new ssrDNA and 124 new lsrDNA sequences. Fully complementary data sets of the two genes were assembled from newly generated and previously published sequences and comprised 163 digenean taxa representing 77 nominal families and seven aspidogastrean outgroup taxa representing three families. Analyses were conducted on the genes independently as well as combined and separate analyses including only the higher plagiorchiidan taxa were performed using a reduced-taxon alignment including additional characters that could not be otherwise unambiguously aligned. The combined data analyses yielded the most strongly supported results and differences between the two methods of analysis were primarily in their degree of resolution. The Bayesian analysis including all taxa and characters, and incorporating a model of nucleotide substitution (general-time-reversible with among-site rate heterogeneity), was considered the best estimate of the phylogeny and was used to evaluate their classification and evolution. In broad terms, the Digenea forms a dichotomy that is split between a lineage leading to the Brachylaimoidea, Diplostomoidea and Schistosomatoidea (collectively the Diplostomida nomen novum (nom. nov.)) and the remainder of the Digenea (the Plagiorchiida), in which the Bivesiculata nom. nov. and Transversotremata nom. nov. form the two most basal lineages, followed by the Hemiurata. The remainder of the Plagiorchiida forms a large number of independent lineages leading to the crown clade Xiphidiata nom. nov. that comprises the Allocreadioidea, Gorgoderoidea, Microphalloidea and Plagiorchioidea, which are united by the presence of a penetrating stylet in their cercariae. Although a majority of families and to a lesser degree, superfamilies are supported as currently defined, the traditional divisions of the Echinostomida, Plagiorchiida and Strigeida were found to comprise non-natural assemblages. Therefore, the membership of established higher taxa are emended, new taxa erected and a revised, phylogenetically based classification proposed and discussed in light of ontogeny, morphology and taxonomic history.
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            Gut wash, body soak, blender and heat-fixation: approaches to the effective collection, fixation and preservation of trematodes of fishes.

            T Cribb, R Bray (2010)
            Advice is offered on some effective methods for collecting and preserving trematodes from fishes for taxonomy and systematics. Emphasis is placed on obtaining high-quality specimens that have reliable data and that are amenable to study by both morphological and molecular approaches. We emphasise the importance of the freshness of the host specimen, the reliability of its provenance and the labelling of the specimens. For the collecting itself, we recommend a 'gut-wash' approach for gastro-intestinal species and specific searches for atypical taxa such as didymozoids, aporocotylids, Saturnius Manter, 1969 and transversotrematids. For metacercariae, we recommend a 'blender' approach to release parasites from host tissues. For fixation, we argue in favour of heat-killing in fluid at close to boiling temperature. We recommend against flattening as a routine procedure for collecting specimens for morphology. Preservation for morphological study is best in formalin or alcohol, and alcohol works well for molecular samples. The importance of reliable labelling and the deposition of specimens in museums is emphasised.
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              A quick and simple method, usable in the field, for collecting parasites in suitable condition for both morphological and molecular studies.

              Many methods have been proposed for collecting and fixing parasites, but most were written before the molecular age, and were intended to be practised by experienced parasitologists in well-equipped laboratories. We describe here a very simple method, illustrated by photographs, for collecting helminths from the digestive tract of vertebrates. It only requires a few plastic vials, some ethanol and a means to heat water. Basically, the method consists of: (a) the extraction of all organs from the abdominal cavity; (b) opening the digestive system longitudinally; (c) agitate gut and contents in a saline solution (i.e. ca. 9% NaCl or 1/4 sea water in tap water); (d) decant in saline as many times as needed to clean contents; (e) immediately fix parasites in near-boiling saline; (f) discard saline and keep specimens in 95% ethanol. Additional information is given for collecting parasites from fish gills with a similar process. The method will collect most helminths (digeneans, larval cestodes, nematodes, acanthocephalans) from the digestive tract, and monogeneans and isopod and copepod crustaceans from fish gills. The specimens will be suitable for both morphological study and DNA sequencing. The method is simple, fast, inexpensive and can be used by untrained personnel, even in the field without electricity and without a binocular microscope. It can also be used by trained parasitologists who need to expedite treatment of abundant samples.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                PeerJ
                PeerJ
                PeerJ
                PeerJ
                PeerJ
                PeerJ Inc. (San Francisco, USA )
                2167-8359
                13 March 2014
                2014
                : 2
                : e292
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Life Sciences, Natural History Museum , London, UK
                [2 ]ISYEB, Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle , France
                Article
                292
                10.7717/peerj.292
                3961169
                24688868
                88f59ff6-a2d3-4e60-9bd8-ace893db0880
                © 2014 Bray et al.

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 13 January 2014
                : 5 February 2014
                Funding
                There was no special funding for this research in addition to annual funding from our institutions.
                Categories
                Parasitology
                Taxonomy
                Zoology

                zoogonidae,new caledonia,atherinomorus,fish parasite,digenea,overstreetia cribbi n. sp.

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