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      Mental evolution and development: Evidence for secondary representation in children, great apes, and other animals.

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      Psychological Bulletin
      American Psychological Association (APA)

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          Abstract

          Recent interest in the development and evolution of theory of mind has provided a wealth of information about representational skills in both children and animals. According to J. Perner (1991), children begin to entertain secondary representations in the 2nd year of life. This advance manifests in their passing hidden displacement tasks, engaging in pretense and means-ends reasoning, interpreting external representations, displaying mirror self-recognition and empathic behavior, and showing an early understanding of "mind" and imitation. New data show a cluster of mental accomplishments in great apes that is very similar to that observed in 2-year-old humans. It is suggested that it is most parsimonious to assume that this cognitive profile is of homologous origin and that great apes possess secondary representational capacity. Evidence from animals other than apes is scant. This analysis leads to a number of predictions for future research.

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          Imitation of facial and manual gestures by human neonates.

          Infants between 12 and 21 days of age can imitate both facial and manual gestures; this behavior cannot be explained in terms of either conditioning or innate releasing mechanisms. Such imitation implies that human neonates can equate their own unseen behaviors with gestures they see others perform.
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            Cultural learning

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              Pretense and representation: The origins of "theory of mind."

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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Psychological Bulletin
                Psychological Bulletin
                American Psychological Association (APA)
                1939-1455
                0033-2909
                2001
                2001
                : 127
                : 5
                : 629-650
                Article
                10.1037/0033-2909.127.5.629
                11548971
                8b747206-84bc-4354-a2f8-3651bce798cc
                © 2001
                History

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