Introduction
The increasing applications of advanced technologies in life sciences are fueling
the growth of data from genome sequencing, functional genomics experiments, and macromolecular
structure determination. Bioinformatics (sometimes interchangeably used with the term
“computational biology”) permits researchers to collect, manage, and sift through
these massive data sets and derive scientific insight from them [1,2]. Bioinformatics
holds a big promise in addressing many of the problems that are facing humanity today,
including human health, agriculture, and the environment [3–8]. Consequently, the
demand for skilled scientists with the ability to use information technology to solve
life science problems has been rising steadily globally.
Similar to other developing countries in Africa, bioinformatics is slowly gaining
popularity among Zimbabwean scientists. In this paper, we review the progress made
by Zimbabwean scientists in bioinformatics and propose strategies for boosting bioinformatics
capacity in the country. To our knowledge, this work is the first attempt to give
a comprehensive report of bioinformatics activities in the country. As such, it is
inevitable that our review may not be exhaustive and may fall short of mentioning
or acknowledging groups or scientists who have contributed or presented their work
on other platforms.
Overview of bioinformatics in Africa
The establishment of the South African National Bioinformatics Institute in South
Africa in the 1990s heralded the development of bioinformatics on the continent [9].
Countries such as Kenya and Nigeria established pockets of high-quality bioinformatics
teams soon after. However, most African research institutions still lagged behind.
The introduction of bioinformatics to the rest of the African continent was slowed
down by several challenges that include limited scope of research encompassing bioinformatics-driven
objectives, shortage of qualified bioinformatics experts, poor access to powerful
computer systems, lack of high-speed internet, poor access to essential databases
and software programs, and unreliable power supply [10,11].
Recent funding investments toward large-scale research projects, training, and infrastructure
support are helping address the bioinformatics disparities between countries within
the continent through establishment of world-class resources and training [12]. The
establishment of the African Society for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology
(ASBCB) (http://www.asbcb.org) during a World Health Organization/Tropical Disease
Research workshop in February 2004 led to a sustainable network of researchers across
the continent. A noteworthy initiative with its foundation in the ASBCB is the Human
Heredity and Health in Africa Bioinformatics Network H3ABioNet network, whose mandate
is to provide bioinformatics support for the Human Heredity and Health in Africa (H3Africa)
initiative and to develop bioinformatics capacity across Africa through funding provided
by the National Institutes of Health [9,13]. H3ABioNet has focused on building infrastructure
and implementing tools that enable collaborations and data transfer across the resource-limited
continent. Since its conception, H3ABioNet has been capturing and measuring metrics
across the consortium using the Network Capacity Database, a relational database [14],
and it is anticipated that analysis of these data will give insight into the impact
of the H3ABioNet consortium.
In order to speed up the development of human capital in bioinformatics in Africa,
various bioinformatics training initiatives happening across Africa provide training
via face to face short courses and other online-based initiatives. Approaches have
been suggested such as train-the-trainer approach, or placements and/or visits from
experts for knowledge transfer purposes into specific research institutes and/or groups
[15]. Also, the H3ABioNet consortium has recently established an education committee
tasked with developing curriculum guidelines for bioinformatics training in Africa
[16]. Such training initiatives are worth exploring or leveraging on for any new bioinformatics
initiative. Recently, three universities and four research institutes in Kenya, Tanzania,
and Uganda collaborated to create The Eastern Africa Network for Bioinformatics Training
(EANBiT), whose aim is to develop a critical mass of practitioners who can develop
and use bioinformatics approaches to biosciences. EANBiT is supported by the Fogarty
International Center of the National Institutes of Health under award number U2RTW010677
and institutional partners in the network.
Bioinformatics in Zimbabwe
The prospects for a vibrant bioinformatics community in Zimbabwe are excellent, given
the outstanding need for life science research and the country’s rich diversity of
resources from human populations, crops, animal species, and the environment. Despite
this potential, the application of bioinformatics in Zimbabwe lags behind some African
countries, such as South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria, as indicated by the low national
publication record (see Fig 1A and 1B). Fig 1A shows the number of peer-reviewed publications
in bioinformatics-related areas with at least one author affiliated with a Zimbabwean
institution. The data clearly indicate that the absolute output from Zimbabwe is significantly
less than other select African countries (South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria). However,
bioinformatics as a research field producing peer-reviewed articles is not completely
absent from the Zimbabwean research landscape. Fig 1B, which shows the output of bioinformatics
papers normalized to the total output in the life sciences from the same select African
countries, shows that bioinformatics research as a fraction of total research in life
sciences is comparable to that of Nigeria. This figure makes the important point that,
although the total bioinformatics research activity is low, it forms a significant
proportion of research in the life sciences. This available bioinformatics research
provides an extant research kernel that can be grown.
10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006480.g001
Fig 1
Bioinformatics publications authored by scientists affiliated with Zimbabwean institutions
compared to South Africa, Kenya, and Nigeria.
(A) The absolute number of bioinformatics papers. (B) The number of bioinformatics
papers normalized to the total outputs in the life sciences. A python script was used
to obtain peer-reviewed research articles published between 2000 and 2017 and indexed
in PubMed.
There are some major developments in the country that promise to spur the development
of bioinformatics in Zimbabwe. These are, inter alia, the following:
In 2015, the government of Zimbabwe commissioned a high performance computer cluster
that is housed at the University of Zimbabwe (UZ) (http://www.zchpc.ac.zw/). The cluster
has a theoretical computing capacity of up to 36 Tflops.
In 2016, the National Biotechnology Authority of Zimbabwe (NBA), the University of
Mauritius, Chinhoyi University of Technology (CUT), and Harare Institute of Technology
(HIT) organized the first Zimbabwe Bioinformatics Symposium. The symposium, which
was held at the HIT campus, was attended by academics and students from the country's
universities and research institutes as well as some international collaborators.
Starting in September 2017, the African Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology
(AiBST) has hosted the first Zimbabwean bioinformatics node as part of the H3Africa,
H3ABioNet V2.
Bioinformatics in human health
Zimbabwe, like most African countries, battles with serious health challenges, particularly
in infectious diseases such as the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency
syndrome (HIV/AIDS), malaria, and tuberculosis (TB) [17–20]. In addition, noncommunicable
diseases are on the rise and contribute significantly to comorbidities. Researchers
in Zimbabwe have started employing bioinformatics techniques to help unravel the genetic
and environmental determinants for these diseases.
To better understand the HIV dynamics in vertical transmission, some research groups
explored the diversity of HIV sequences from infected infants and various compartments
from their mothers. In one study, genotypic analysis of HIV-1 envelope third variable
loop sequences of infected but drug-naive women during pregnancy and their infected
infants was carried out to predict virus coreceptor utilization in vertical transmission
[21]. Using similar methods, other groups investigated the viral characteristics associated
with high-risk genotypes of human papillomavirus that are associated with malignancy
[22]. These studies represent an effort to use bioinformatics to produce data of clinical
relevance for Zimbabwe and beyond.
Zimbabwean researchers have been at the forefront of developing the field of pharmacogenomics
in Africa [23–26]. Spearheaded by the Departments of Biochemistry and Clinical Pharmacology
at the UZ and AiBST, pharmacogenomics research has mostly focused on understanding
the role of human and pathogen genetic variation in drug response, side effects, and
therapeutic outcomes in the management of HIV, TB, and malaria. One of the most important
outputs from these efforts has been the establishment of a biobank and a pharmacogenetic
database for African populations, a resource developed to provide baseline understanding
of pharmacogenetic variation for potential application toward tailoring drug treatment
[24]. Further work has enabled elucidation of key markers, which are prevalent in
African populations and are associated with side effects of the anti-retroviral drug
efavirenz [25,26].
Zimbabwean scientists have started to embrace computational methods for the discovery
of drug targets and for the identification of new disease markers to improve early
diagnosis or develop new therapeutic strategies. For example, a study at AiBST used
in vitro and in silico approaches to show that thiabendazole is a potent mechanism-based
inhibitor of cytochrome P450 1A2 [27]. In the study, potential drug–drug interactions
were also simulated. These and other simulation efforts are likely to increase given
the workshops on computer aided drug discovery (CADD) conducted at the Zimbabwe Centre
for High-Performance Computing (ZCHPC) in 2016.
Local scientists have not actively pursued high-throughput functional genomics approaches
such as proteomic profiling for mechanism-based drug discovery and drug repurposing.
This is despite the fact that gas chromatography–mass spectrometers (GC-MS) and liquid
chromatography–mass spectrometers (LC-MS) can be found at research institutions such
as AiBST, National Microbiology Reference Laboratory, and Standards Association of
Zimbabwe Laboratories. This is mainly because there are few researchers with sufficient
knowledge of proteomics (or other functional genomics approaches such as transcriptomics
and metabolomics) to carry out research encompassing “omics”-driven objectives. Also,
the organizations with the GC-MS and LC-MS generally do not have technicians with
expertise in proteomics, and thus there are no optimized protocols and data analysis
pipelines.
Bioinformatics in food security
Zimbabwe produces a large variety of agricultural products meant for food, such as
maize, sorghum, groundnuts, fruit, and vegetables, in addition to livestock and poultry.
Generally, bioinformatics can be used to efficiently gain access to “omics” data available
in the publicly available repositories and to make available the data to research
scientists involved in animal or crop breeding. For example, local scientists can
employ genomics analysis to aid in the assessment of genetic diversity and identification
of important genetic traits for the production of crops and livestock with desirable
traits including high yield and disease resistance [7,8]. However, there is little
bioinformatics activity in that direction in Zimbabwe. Research institutions such
as universities, the Scientific and Industrial Research and Development Centre, the
International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre (CIMMYT), and the International Crops
Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, are, however, well positioned to adopt
bioinformatics techniques owing to the regional and international collaborative nature
of their research projects. The following examples illustrate how such collaborations
are important.
Researchers at CIMMYT, working with their international collaborators, conducted a
metabolomic profiling study of maize leaves to investigate the effects of drought,
heat, and combined stress on grain yield in field crops [28]. This kind of work is
important in the development of abiotic stress-resistant and/or tolerant cultivars,
thereby improving food security.
In the livestock sector, a genome-wide association study of the Zimbabwean goat, pigs,
and cattle has been done by the South African Biotechnology Research Institute under
the Agricultural Research Council in collaboration with the UZ [29].
Metagenomics studies
Some metagenomic efforts are being made at some universities such as CUT and National
University of Science and Technology (NUST), with the aim of improving environmental
sustainability and the bioprocessing industry. Among other works, the NUST group presented
the whole-genome shotgun metagenome sequences of the greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)
rumen digesta revealing its diverse microbial community and some novel hydrolytic
enzymes [30]. While all the preliminary wet laboratory procedures, including the metagenomic
DNA extraction, were carried out at NUST, subsequent steps were carried out at international
institutes. Whole-genome sequencing of the metagenomic DNA was performed at Inqaba
Biotech Laboratories in Pretoria, South Africa, and the sequences were analyzed at
the European Bioinformatics Institute of the European Molecular Biology Laboratory.
In addition, a research group at CUT, working with South African collaborators, performed
functional screening of the metagenome of the hindgut bacterial symbionts of a termite,
Trinervitermes trinervoides, to discover open reading frames for 25 cellulases and
hemicellulases [31]. These metagenomic efforts in the country have biotechnological
significance because they may lead to, among other things, the isolation of novel
enzymes such as cellulases, which can be used in the production of biofuels.
Bioinformatics education
University programs
Zimbabwe has no institution offering dedicated bioinformatics degrees at the undergraduate
or graduate level. However, relatively new universities (CUT, HIT, Lupane State University
[LSU]) have integrated bioinformatics courses in their undergraduate biotechnology
and/or biological sciences degree programs. Given the importance of bioinformatics,
it would be desirable if all universities offering undergraduate degrees in the life
sciences introduced bioinformatics courses. This will help create a new skilled workforce,
produce more tangible results in a shorter period of time, and provide a strong foundation
for the development of specialized MSc-and PhD-level bioinformatics programs. It is
encouraging to note that some universities offer Master’s and PhD research projects
in which bioinformatics-driven objectives form a significant component, e.g., projects
involving genomic, proteomic, and metabolite profiling.
Most early career scientists teaching at universities are molecular biologists who
hold PhDs from overseas universities or from other countries in Africa (mainly South
Africa). This situation has complicated the true assessment of local skills needs
and can have a disruptive effect on development of bioinformatics in the country.
On the other hand, the experienced generation of molecular biologists at most universities
was trained before the widespread application of bioinformatics in research. These
biologists also need training in this area for them to teach bioinformatics to their
students.
Short courses
Since 2005, several capacity-building initiatives are ongoing and are facilitated
by the Research Council of Zimbabwe, Biomedical Research and Training Institute, National
Biotechnology Authority (NBA), and AiBST. These capacity-building activities are presented
through symposia and short course training. The bioinformatics topics covered in these
courses have included genome browsing, DNA sequence analysis, and DNA barcoding. These
short courses have been complemented by several exchange programs with international
partners such as Stanford University, University of Oslo, University of Cape Town,
and Biodiversity Institute of South Africa, which supported some students in their
MSc and PhD programs in molecular-biology–related disciplines. In August 2016, workshops
were conducted in which participants from the country's universities and major research
institutions were trained in computational chemistry and CADD at the ZCHPC. The training
focused on software for drug discovery such as GROMACS, Schrodinger Suite including
Maestro, and molecular visualization tools like Pymol and Chimera.
Scientific networking and collaborations
Networking among local scientists presents potential opportunities for peer support,
collaborative research, and effective postgraduate training of students among bioinformatics
researchers. One of the reasons for poor networking among Zimbabwean scientists is
that some institutions do not have comprehensive websites, and potential collaborators
find it difficult to identify groups to work with. This puts many as yet unknown early
career scientists at a disadvantage. We have summarized (Table 1) the institutions
pursuing bioinformatics-related research. However, most of the research findings from
early career scientists are yet to be published in peer-reviewed journals. We hope
that publishing this list will encourage networking and collaborations among local
scientists, as well as with the international community.
10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006480.t001
Table 1
Research activities currently underway in Zimbabwean institutions.
Institution
Research areas
Official website
AiBST
• Medical genomics of HIV and TB drug resistance
• Pharmacogenomics studies
• H3ABioNet Node
www.aibst.com
CUT
• Identification of new anti-infective agents and drug targets using chemogenomics
and molecular modeling
• Systems biology and proteomic approaches to understand molecular mechanisms of plant
stress tolerance
• Bioprospecting for novel hydrolytic enzymes from animals and natural environments
using metagenomics approaches
• Metabolomic and genomic profiling toward cultivation strategies of Fadogia ancylantha
www.cut.ac.zw
HIT
• CADD
www.hit.ac.zw
LSU
• Application of bioinformatics for crop improvement
• Phylogenetic studies of wild edible mushrooms of Zimbabwe
www.lsu.ac.zw
NBA
• Bioinformatics for toxicological risk assessment of potential allergens resulting
from use of new and emerging technologies such as synthetic biology, new plant breeding
technologies (precision breeding technologies, nanobiotechnology)
www.nba.ac.zw
NUST
• Phylogenetic studies of viruses of medicinal and veterinary importance
• Bioprospecting for novel hydrolytic enzymes from animals and natural environments
using metagenomics approaches
www.nust.ac.zw
UZ
• CADD
• Pharmacogenomics
www.uz.ac.zw
ZCHPC
• HPC training
• Supercomputing facility
www.zchpc.ac.zw
Abbreviations: AiBST, African Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology; CADD,
computer-aided drug discovery; CUT, Chinhoyi University of Technology; H3ABioNet,
Human Heredity and Health in Africa Bioinformatics Network; HIT, Harare Institute
of Technology; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; HPC, high-performance computing;
LSU, Lupane State University; NBA, National Biotechnology Authority of Zimbabwe; NUST,
National University of Science and Technology; TB, tuberculosis; UZ, University of
Zimbabwe; ZCHPC, Zimbabwe Centre for High-Performance Computing.
Following the first Zimbabwe Bioinformatics Symposium, the NBA made efforts to establish
the Bioinformatics Consortium of Zimbabwe (BCZ), which aimed at (1) continually promoting
networking among bioinformaticians, (2) promoting the exchange of ideas and resources,
and (3) facilitating local and international collaborations. Through this consortium,
an application was submitted and accepted for the Human Health Node through the H3ABioNet.
With this encouraging development, there is a great opportunity for increased networking
and membership of the BCZ.
We note that only a handful of researchers from Zimbabwe have joined the International
Society for Computational Biology (ISCB) (https://www.iscb.org) or ASBCB. These societies
provide an excellent forum for the interaction of researchers in the area of bioinformatics,
which is highly beneficial to the members. Nonparticipation in the ISCB and ASBCB
is probably due to the slow development of bioinformatics research in the country
coupled with poor funding opportunities for local researchers.
Perspectives and conclusion
Proposed strategy for implementing bioinformatics at national level
We are confident that a clear national road map aimed at developing independent and
dedicated research and support structures as demonstrated by the South African experience
[9] will accelerate implementation of bioinformatics research in Zimbabwe. Therefore,
we propose that we devise strategies as summarized in Fig 2.
10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006480.g002
Fig 2
Proposed strategies for promoting bioinformatics in Zimbabwe.
In the short and medium terms, formation of research groups and clusters is essential
while working toward the development of a green paper in the long run. In education
and/or training, focus should be placed on workshops in the short term followed by
introduction of MSc and PhD programs in the medium and long term. See main text for
details.
Short-term strategies
In the short term, the BCZ should call a meeting of all Zimbabwean bioinformatics
researchers, educators, industry leaders, and government policy makers to discuss
bioinformatics resources and opportunities. Such a situation would allow for the identification
of national priorities for bioinformatics research. The specific research areas chosen
should be in line with the developmental needs of the country and be feasible in terms
of the country’s resources. Although there was an interaction of local researchers
in the first Zimbabwe Bioinformatics Symposium held in Harare in 2016, the major focus
was to present past and present research results by local and international scientists.
The BCZ, which should adopt a more transparent membership recruitment policy, should
drive the development of a roadmap and would be expected to review progress at least
annually through research symposia. In that regard, the BCZ needs to develop a clear
administration structure that should be tasked with coming up with a constitution
and a website to facilitate the creation and/or editing of profiles of bioinformatics
research groups, thus helping to publicize bioinformatics initiatives in Zimbabwe.
In addition, the BCZ would be expected to provide ongoing support to members through
web-based portals.
During the development of the national roadmap, an International Advisory Committee
(IAC) needs to be formed, which would be responsible for providing guidance on the
planning and implementation of the project as a whole. The IAC should include members
from the region and the international community—thus combining the knowledge of the
peculiarities in the region and the more objective points of view from the international
community. For the IAC to be effective, it should be composed of members with no conflicts
of interest regarding the development of bioinformatics in Zimbabwe.
To address the critical skills shortage, the short-term strategy would be giving focus
to seminars, conferences, and workshops that are coordinated at a national level and
tailored to meet the training requirements of postgraduate students, academics, and
relevant industry players. Given that bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field,
postgraduate students and researchers can be drawn from a broad range of disciplines
including biology, chemistry, statistics, and computer science. For beginners, the
courses may be designed to teach participants important skills such as coding for
biology, biological databases, data mining, etc. More advanced topics—including systems
biology, proteomics, metabolomics, and structural bioinformatics—should be considered
for those who are already familiar with the basic introductory topics. Prioritizing
short courses at this stage will be important to ensure that research students become
acquainted with the latest advancements in bioinformatics and thus design their research
projects accordingly. Involvement of the government and industry is crucial because
these can help provide postgraduate students funding for attending international conferences
and training events that could be a good means of quickly getting the bioinformatics
community active. Mentoring and training of trainers will be crucial for building
capacity and developing critical mass of individuals with bioinformatics skills. In
addition, the BCZ needs to develop an online platform for sharing educational and/or
training material, code, and bioinformatics protocols. These measures will ensure
easy access to information and speed up developments in the field.
Medium-term strategies
Once the stage has been set for the national coordination of bioinformatics activities,
these need to be strengthened by the formation of research clusters. Because bioinformatics
is inherently interdisciplinary in nature, involvement of computer scientists, statisticians,
etc., is crucial. Formation of multidisciplinary research clusters should make it
easier to procure research funding from local sources and competitive international
sources. Research clusters should be supported at a national level by coordinating
and facilitating access to infrastructure facilities. At present, many local research
groups work in isolation, and some are not aware of where to access resources locally,
thus contributing to a poor publication record. Ongoing research programs such as
those highlighted in Table 1 could be used as the basis for development of specific
bioinformatics skills.
It can be argued that the establishment of an MSc (or equivalent postgraduate qualification)
in bioinformatics is urgent in Zimbabwe. One way to do this, as a starting point,
would be to identify one university and support it to set up a national bioinformatics
training and resource institute. The institute could house the majority of bioinformaticians
available in the country and be key in the training of both students and staff and
help in local bioinformatics research activities. The institute will also work closely
with the BCZ to make sure that no researcher and/or research is excluded and unrecognized.
It is refreshing to note that CUT has started efforts to draft regulations for MSc
Bioinformatics degree programs by coursework in collaboration with H3ABioNet. Associating
with H3ABioNet is ideal because it helps one benefit from the experience of setting
up an MSc Bioinformatics program in an African setting to address African needs. Also,
it helps to address the skills shortage for lecturers because the H3ABioNet has coordination
strategies for sharing human resources from distant universities, including via online
education. CUT has also signed a memorandum of understanding with AiBST in an arrangement
that would see CUT offering an MSc in Genomics and Precision Medicine starting in
2019.
Long-term strategies
In the long term, it should be possible that a national green paper on bioinformatics
be produced and agreed policies implemented. This can be achieved by involving the
government from an early stage in defining the priorities for support. For example,
given the burden of both communicable and noncommunicable disease in Africa, all stakeholders
could agree that health is a national priority for bioinformatics support. Tackling
emerging risks of viral infections and drug resistance can be addressed by applying
bioinformatics to understand pathogen genomes, to follow resistance patterns, and
for identifying drug targets.
With the background work done, the culmination of education and training efforts should
see significant registrations for PhD studies and postdoctoral training. The importance
of doctoral-level training at a local level for any economy need not be over-emphasized.
Locally trained graduates would help tackle local problems more effectively, either
during their training or after graduation. Indeed, the publication record for the
country would significantly improve. The government can play an important role in
supporting the PhD studies financially.
Conclusion
Despite limited funding sources, we find that some bioinformatics research efforts
are being made by several groups involved in biomedical research, CADD, agriculture,
and biotechnology. However, the most active areas are those involved in human health.
Most of the biomedical research in Zimbabwe is being done by a few well-established
institutions with links and partnerships to established institutions in the region
or overseas. The research focuses mainly on the primary diseases of poverty (TB, malaria,
HIV/AIDS, and other opportunistic pathogens). However, the national publication record
is still low when compared to some African countries that have embraced bioinformatics,
mainly due to poor funding, poor networking, and inadequate training opportunities.
Solving these problems would require coordination at a national level.
We have proposed strategies for stimulating increased activities in bioinformatics
in Zimbabwe. These strategies include the recognition of the BCZ that was established
in 2016 to lead the formulation and implementation of the roadmap to bioinformatics
growth and coordinate national activities, among other goals. In order for the BCZ
to be more viable internationally, it should be affiliated with international platforms
such as the ISCB and the ASBCB. Clearly, the envisaged responsibilities of the BCZ
are serious and require an effective administrative structure. An effective BCZ is
important because it can aid government policy makers in mapping the direction of
science and technology research in the country.
For a sustainable implementation of bioinformatics in the country, we suggest that
the country aim to become a data producer and bioinformatics service provider on a
specific and firm set of limited domains rather than being an unfocused bioinformatics
user in a broad range of disparate fields. Therefore, at this stage, the country should
aim to operate within a targeted node in a pan-African network. In our view, although
international linkages are important, the commitment to bioinformatics capacity development
by the government and industry players would be key to the success of the bioinformatics
endeavors in the country.