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      Antiviral Effects of Oleandrin

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          Abstract

          Over the past 15 years, investigators have reported on the utility and safety of cardiac glycosides for numerous health benefits including those as treatments for malignant disease, stroke-mediated ischemic injury and certain neurodegenerative diseases. In addition to those, there is a growing body of evidence for novel antiviral effects of selected cardiac glycoside molecules. One unique cardiac glycoside, oleandrin derived from Nerium oleander, has been reported to have antiviral activity specifically against ‘enveloped’ viruses including HIV and HTLV-1. Importantly, a recent publication has presented in vitro evidence for oleandrin’s ability to inhibit production of infectious virus particles when used for treatment prior to, as well as after infection by SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19. This review will highlight the known in vitro antiviral effects of oleandrin as well as present previously unpublished effects of this novel cardiac glycoside against Ebola virus, Cytomegalovirus, and Herpes simplex viruses.

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          Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus as an agent of emerging and reemerging infection.

          Vincent Cheng, Susanna Lau, Patrick C. Y. Woo … (2007)
          Before the emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2003, only 12 other animal or human coronaviruses were known. The discovery of this virus was soon followed by the discovery of the civet and bat SARS-CoV and the human coronaviruses NL63 and HKU1. Surveillance of coronaviruses in many animal species has increased the number on the list of coronaviruses to at least 36. The explosive nature of the first SARS epidemic, the high mortality, its transient reemergence a year later, and economic disruptions led to a rush on research of the epidemiological, clinical, pathological, immunological, virological, and other basic scientific aspects of the virus and the disease. This research resulted in over 4,000 publications, only some of the most representative works of which could be reviewed in this article. The marked increase in the understanding of the virus and the disease within such a short time has allowed the development of diagnostic tests, animal models, antivirals, vaccines, and epidemiological and infection control measures, which could prove to be useful in randomized control trials if SARS should return. The findings that horseshoe bats are the natural reservoir for SARS-CoV-like virus and that civets are the amplification host highlight the importance of wildlife and biosecurity in farms and wet markets, which can serve as the source and amplification centers for emerging infections.
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            Epidemiological Aspects and World Distribution of HTLV-1 Infection

            Antoine Gessain, Olivier Cassar, Jinyun Tang (2013)
            The human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1), identified as the first human oncogenic retrovirus 30 years ago, is not an ubiquitous virus. HTLV-1 is present throughout the world, with clusters of high endemicity located often nearby areas where the virus is nearly absent. The main HTLV-1 highly endemic regions are the Southwestern part of Japan, sub-Saharan Africa and South America, the Caribbean area, and foci in Middle East and Australo-Melanesia. The origin of this puzzling geographical or rather ethnic repartition is probably linked to a founder effect in some groups with the persistence of a high viral transmission rate. Despite different socio-economic and cultural environments, the HTLV-1 prevalence increases gradually with age, especially among women in all highly endemic areas. The three modes of HTLV-1 transmission are mother to child, sexual transmission, and transmission with contaminated blood products. Twenty years ago, de Thé and Bomford estimated the total number of HTLV-1 carriers to be 10–20 millions people. At that time, large regions had not been investigated, few population-based studies were available and the assays used for HTLV-1 serology were not enough specific. Despite the fact that there is still a lot of data lacking in large areas of the world and that most of the HTLV-1 studies concern only blood donors, pregnant women, or different selected patients or high-risk groups, we shall try based on the most recent data, to revisit the world distribution and the estimates of the number of HTLV-1 infected persons. Our best estimates range from 5–10 millions HTLV-1 infected individuals. However, these results were based on only approximately 1.5 billion of individuals originating from known HTLV-1 endemic areas with reliable available epidemiological data. Correct estimates in other highly populated regions, such as China, India, the Maghreb, and East Africa, is currently not possible, thus, the current number of HTLV-1 carriers is very probably much higher.
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              COVID ‐19: a global threat to the nervous system

              Igor Koralnik, Kenneth Tyler (2020)
              In less than 6 months, the severe acute respiratory syndrome‐coronavirus type 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2) has spread worldwide infecting nearly 6 million people and killing over 350,000. Initially thought to be restricted to the respiratory system, we now understand that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID‐19) also involves multiple other organs including the central and peripheral nervous system. The number of recognized neurologic manifestations of SARS‐CoV‐2 infection is rapidly accumulating. These may result from a variety of mechanisms including virus‐induced hyper‐inflammatory and hypercoagulable states, direct virus infection of the CNS, and post‐infectious immune mediated processes. Example of COVID‐19 CNS disease include encephalopathy, encephalitis, acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, meningitis, ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke, venous sinus thrombosis and endothelialitis. In the peripheral nervous system COVID‐19 is associated with dysfunction of smell and taste, muscle injury, the Guillain‐Barre syndrome and its variants. Due to its worldwide distribution and multifactorial pathogenic mechanisms, COVID‐19 poses a global threat to the entire nervous system. While our understanding of SARS‐CoV‐2 neuropathogenesis is still incomplete and our knowledge is evolving rapidly, we hope that this review will provide a useful framework and help neurologists in understanding the many neurologic facets of COVID‐19.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): J Exp Pharmacol
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): J Exp Pharmacol
                Journal ID (publisher-id): jep
                Journal ID (pmc): jexpharm
                Title: Journal of Experimental Pharmacology
                Publisher: Dove
                ISSN (Electronic): 1179-1454
                Publication date (Electronic): 16 November 2020
                Publication date Collection: 2020
                Volume: 12
                Pages: 503-515
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Department of Experimental Therapeutics, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center , Houston, TX 77054, USA
                [2 ]Phoenix Biotechnology, Inc , San Antonio, TX 78217, USA
                [3 ]Departments of Thoracic, Head and Neck Medical Oncology and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center , Houston, TX 77030, USA
                [4 ]Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin , Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
                [5 ]National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health , Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
                [6 ]Innovar, LLC , Plano, TX 75025, USA
                [7 ]Department of Biological Sciences, the Dedman College Center for Drug Discovery, Design & Delivery, Southern Methodist University , Dallas, TX 75275, USA
                Author notes
                Correspondence: Robert A Newman Tel +1-7138578921 Email newmanscientificconsulting@gmail.com
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8021-8493
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2124-523X
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-0808-0343
                Article
                Publisher ID: 273120
                DOI: 10.2147/JEP.S273120
                PMC ID: 7686471
                SO-VID: 92063828-5bd4-4896-b555-4aac378e52be
                Copyright © © 2020 Newman et al.
                License:

                This work is published and licensed by Dove Medical Press Limited. The full terms of this license are available at https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php and incorporate the Creative Commons Attribution – Non Commercial (unported, v3.0) License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/). By accessing the work you hereby accept the Terms. Non-commercial uses of the work are permitted without any further permission from Dove Medical Press Limited, provided the work is properly attributed. For permission for commercial use of this work, please see paragraphs 4.2 and 5 of our Terms ( https://www.dovepress.com/terms.php).

                History
                Date received : 04 September 2020
                Date accepted : 25 October 2020
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 2, References: 89, Pages: 13
                Categories
                Subject: Review

                Keywords: oleandrin,nerium oleander,virus,na,k-atpase,antiviral therapy
                Data availability:
                Keywords: oleandrin, nerium oleander, virus, na, k-atpase, antiviral therapy

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