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      Metazoan parasite infection in the swordfish, Xiphias gladius, from the Mediterranean Sea and comparison with Atlantic populations: implications for its stock characterization Translated title: Infection par des métazoaires parasites chez l’espadon Xiphias gladius en Méditerranée et comparaison avec les populations de l’Atlantique : implications pour la caractérisation des stocks

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          Abstract

          Thirteen parasite taxa were identified in the Mediterranean swordfish by morphological and genetic/molecular methods. The comparison of the identified parasite taxa and parasitic infection values observed in the Mediterranean swordfish showed statistically significant differences with respect to those reported for its Atlantic populations. A stepwise Linear Discriminant Analysis of the individual fish examined showed a separation among three groups: one including fish from the Mediterranean Sea (CTS, STS, and IOS); one consisting of fish from the Central South (CS), Eastern Tropical (ET), and Equatorial (TEQ) Atlantic; and a third comprising the fish sampled from the North-West Atlantic (NW); the CN Atlantic sample was more similar to the first group rather than to the other Atlantic ones. The nematodes Hysterothylacium petteri and Anisakis pegreffii were the species that contributed most to the characterization of the Mediterranean swordfish samples with respect to these Atlantic ones. Anisakis brevispiculata, A. physeteris, A. paggiae, Anisakis sp. 2, Hysterothylacium incurvum, Hepatoxylon trichiuri, Sphyriocephalus viridis, and their high infection levels were associated with the swordfish from the Central and the Southern Atlantic areas. Finally, H. corrugatum, A. simplex (s.s.), Rhadinorhynchus pristis, and Bolbosoma vasculosum were related to the fish from the North-West (NW) Atlantic area. These results indicate that some parasites, particularly Anisakis spp. larvae identified by genetic markers, could be used as “biological tags” and support the existence of a Mediterranean swordfish stock.

          Translated abstract

          Treize taxa de parasites ont été identifiés dans les espadons de Méditerranée par des méthodes morphologiques et génétiques/moléculaires. La comparaison des taxons de parasites identifiés et des valeurs d’infections parasitaires observées dans les espadons de Méditerranée a montré des différences statistiquement significatives par rapport à ce qui a été rapporté pour les populations de l’Atlantique. Une analyse discriminante linéaire de chaque poisson examiné a montré une séparation en trois groupes : l’un qui comprend les poissons de la mer Méditerranée (CTS, STS et IOS), l’un composé de poissons des zones de l’Atlantique, zones Central Sud (CS), Tropical Est (ET) et équatoriale (TEQ), un troisième comprenant des poissons échantillonnés de l’Atlantique nord-ouest. L’échantillon Atlantique CN était plus similaire au premier groupe qu’aux autres groupes de l’Atlantique. Les nématodes Hysterothylacium petteri et Anisakis pegreffii sont les espèces qui ont le plus contribué à la caractérisation des échantillons d’espadons de la Méditerranée par rapport à ceux de l’Atlantique. Anisakis brevispiculata, A. physeteris, A. paggiae, Anisakis sp. 2, Hysterothylacium incurvum, Hepatoxylon trichiuri, Sphyriocephalus viridis, et leurs niveaux élevés d’infection étaient associés aux espadons des zones Centrale et Sud de l’Atlantique. Enfin, H. corrugatum, A. simplex (s.s.), Rhadinorhynchus pristis et Bolbosoma vasculosum étaient liés avec les poissons la région Nord-Ouest de l’Atlantique. Ces résultats indiquent que certains parasites, en particulier les larves d’ Anisakis spp. identifiées par des marqueurs génétiques, pourraient être utilisés comme « marqueurs biologiques » et soutenir l’existence d’un stock d’espadon de Méditerranée.

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          Parasites of the superorganism: are they indicators of ecosystem health?

          The concept of ecosystem health is derived from analogies with human health, which subsequently leads to the implication that the ecosystem has organismal properties, a 'superorganism' in the Clementsian sense. Its application and usefulness has been the subject of a contentious debate; yet, the term 'ecosystem health' has captured the public's imagination and woven its way into the current lexicon, even incorporated into public policy. However, the application of parasites as bioindicators of ecosystem health poses a curious conundrum. Perceptions of parasites range from mild distaste to sheer disgust among the general public, the media, environmental managers and non-parasitologists in the scientific community. Nevertheless, the biological nature of parasitism incorporates natural characteristics that are informative and useful for environmental management. The helminths in particular have evolved elegant means to ensure their transmission, often relying on complex life cycle interactions that include a variety of invertebrate and vertebrate hosts. The assemblage of these diverse parasites within a host organism potentially reflect that host's trophic position within the food web as well as the presence in the ecosystem of any other organisms that participate in the various parasite life cycles. Perturbations in ecosystem structure and function that affect food web topology will also impact upon parasite transmission, thus affecting parasite species abundance and composition. As such, parasite populations and communities are useful indicators of environmental stress, food web structure and biodiversity. In addition, there may be useful other means to utilise parasitic organisms based on their biology and life histories such as suites or guilds that may be effective bioindicators of particular forms of environmental degradation. The challenge for parasitology is to convince resource managers and fellow scientists that parasites are a natural part of all ecosystems, each species being a potentially useful information unit, and that healthy ecosystems have healthy parasites.
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            Advances and trends in the molecular systematics of anisakid nematodes, with implications for their evolutionary ecology and host-parasite co-evolutionary processes.

            The application of molecular systematics to the anisakid nematodes of the genera Anisakis, Pseudoterranova and Contracaecum, parasites of aquatic organisms, over the last two decades, has advanced the understanding of their systematics, taxonomy, ecology and phylogeny substantially. Here the results of this effort on this group of species from the early genetic works to the current status of their revised taxonomy, ecology and evolutionary aspects are reviewed for each of three parasitic groups. It has been shown that many anisakid morphospecies of Anisakis, Contracaecum and Pseudoterranova include a certain number of sibling species. Molecular genetic markers provided a rapid, precise means to screen and identify several species that serve as definitive and intermediate and or/paratenic hosts of the so far genetically characterized species. Patterns of differential distribution of anisakid nematodes in various definitive and intermediate hosts are presented. Differences in the life history of related species can be due both to differential host-parasite co-adaptation and co-evolution, and/or to interspecific competition, that can reduce the range of potential hosts in sympatric conditions. Phylogenetic hypotheses attempted for anisakid nematodes and the possible evolutionary scenarios that have been proposed inferred from molecular data, also with respect to the phylogeny of their hosts are presented for the parasite-host associations Anisakis-cetaceans and Contracaecum-pinnipeds, showing that codivergence and host-switching events could have accompanied the evolution of these groups of parasites. Finally, examples in which anisakid nematodes recognized genetically at the species level in definitive and intermediate/paratenic hosts from various geographical areas of the Boreal and Austral regions and their infection levels have been used as biological indicators of fish stocks and food-web integrity in areas at high versus low levels of habitat disturbance (pollution, overfishing, by-catch) are presented.
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              Comparative phylogeography of Atlantic bluefin tuna and swordfish: the combined effects of vicariance, secondary contact, introgression, and population expansion on the regional phylogenies of two highly migratory pelagic fishes.

              Comparative phylogeography has revealed remarkable patterns of concordance in the maternal phylogenies of many species. The phylogeography and historical demography of the mitochondrial control region I for 607 Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) and 275 swordfish (Xiphias gladius) were analyzed to clarify the complex phylogenetic signals in the North Atlantic-Mediterranean region where they are sympatric. Atlantic bluefin tuna mtDNA is polyphyletic, and includes rare sequences sister to Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) and introgressed albacore (Thunnus alalunga) sequences. There is no geographic partitioning between Atlantic and Mediterranean samples of Atlantic bluefin tuna (Phi(ST)=0.002). In contrast, Atlantic and Mediterranean swordfish are differentiated (Phi(ST)=0.091) due to the combined effects of vicariance, secondary contact, and dissimilar regional demographic histories. Mediterranean swordfish has substantially less variation, and a more recent history (tau=2.42) than that of Atlantic swordfish (tau=7.02). In spite of the discordant phylogenetic and phylogeographic signals, the demographic history of Atlantic swordfish and Atlantic bluefin tuna (tau=7.51) suggests concordance in the timeline of population expansion. Possible scenarios of cladogenesis, expansion, and contraction, influenced by glacial cycles during the Pleistocene, are formulated.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Parasite
                Parasite
                parasite
                Parasite
                EDP Sciences
                1252-607X
                1776-1042
                2014
                25 July 2014
                : 21
                : ( publisher-idID: parasite/2014/01 )
                : 35
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Department of Public Health and Infectious Diseases, Section of Parasitology, “Sapienza” University of Rome P.le Aldo Moro, 5 00185 Rome Italy
                [2 ] IPMA, I.P Avenida 5 de Outubro s/n 8700-305 Olhão Portugal
                [3 ] Department of Ecological and Biological Sciences, Tuscia University Viale dell’Università s/n 01100 Viterbo Italy
                Author notes
                Article
                parasite130053 10.1051/parasite/2014036
                10.1051/parasite/2014036
                4109596
                25057787
                93ac221b-69a1-4806-ac16-ace91b4b4167
                © S. Mattiucci et al., published by EDP Sciences, 2014

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 05 July 2013
                : 26 June 2014
                Page count
                Figures: 4, Tables: 4, Equations: 0, References: 74, Pages: 13
                Categories
                Research Article

                xiphias gladius,mediterranean sea,metazoan parasites,fish stock

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