replying to
: N. Ø. Brusgaard et al.; Scientific Reports 10.1038/s41598-022-05073-6 (2022).
We would like to thank Brusgaard et al.
1
for their critical reading of our paper
2
and keeping the debate on the neolithization process of the NW European lowlands ongoing.
Before addressing the comments raised by the authors, we would like to emphasize that
our paper was mainly intended to present and discuss new evidence demonstrating the
presence of domesticated animals well before 4300/4000 cal BC in light of the long-term
debate on the pace and timing of the neolithization of the lowlands beyond the agro-pastoral
frontier. Our argumentation is primarily based on two bones of sheep/goat from the
site of Bazel, dated between ca. 4700 and 4500 cal BC, and we clearly stated in our
paper that it is these two bones that provide the strongest evidence for early domesticated
animals within the Scheldt basin, as they are clearly domestic in origin
2
. Contrary to Brusgaard et al., we believe these constitute, so far, the oldest examples
of domesticated animals within a forager context and are definitely older than the
dated sheep/goat bone from Hardinxveld. The latter is proven by a failed chi-test
(R_Com X2-Test: df = 2 T = 8.523(5% 6.0)) when trying to calculate the average of
the two dates from Bazel with the one from Hardinxveld. Similarly, the site of Bazel
yielded the oldest known cereal grains, dating approximately 500 years earlier than
elsewhere within the NW European plain
3
. Hence, in our view the site is exceptional as it provides the first irrefutable
proof of the introduction of domesticated plants and animals beyond the agricultural
frontier during the first half of the 5th millennium cal BC.
In addition we discussed in our paper some bones of Bos specimens which, based on
osteometrics (e.g. proximal width metacarpals) might be domesticated, although we
mention that (some of) these might also belong to small female aurochs. Nevertheless,
we decided to further include these bones in the discussion as possible extra indication
of the early introduction of domesticates at Bazel. Brusgaard et al., on the other
hand, argue against the domestic nature of these animals based on an inter-site analysis
of the Logarithmic Size Index. According to them, the LSI of Bazel points at the presence
of mainly aurochs rather than cattle, as there is a substantial overlap with the LSI
data from late Mesolithic Ertebølle sites, which contain mainly aurochs. This, however,
is not surprising as the vast majority of the Bazel-bones included in their LSI analysis
(cf. Brusgaard et al., supplementary data
1
) has already been attributed to aurochs in earlier studies based on osteometrics
2,4
. In these studies just 4 out of the 21 LSI-analyzed bone samples were identified
as Bos taurus, including the two metacarpal bones which were radiocarbon dated between
ca. 4800 and 4600/4500 cal BC. The fact that these four bones are situated at the
lower tail of the LSI range of Bazel (LSI: −0.095/−0.136), and hence belong to species
which are much smaller than the smallest Ertebølle aurochs (LSI: −0.05), clearly hints
at their domesticated nature. In fact these values closely match with the LSI of cattle
found within the Neolithic Linearbandkeramik and Hazendonk Cultures (cf. Brusgaard
et al., Fig. 1
1
). As such, the LSI analysis conducted by Brusgaard et al. supports our statement
about the likely presence of some domesticated Bos specimens at Bazel already during
the first half of the 5th millennium cal BC. Yet it is clear that only genetic analyses
can provide firm confirmation, but awaiting these we think it is important to approach
the neolithization process with an open mind.
After all, it is difficult to explain why during the first half of the 5th millennium
cal BC only sheep/goat would have been introduced into the lowlands, while other domesticates
from the livestock of adjacent Neolithic cultures (e.g. cattle and pig) were not.
We know that from 4300 cal BC onwards local livestock in the lowlands was dominated
by pig and cattle, as demonstrated by the Dutch Swifterbant sites S3
5
and Schipluiden
6
. In fact, sheep/goat seem to be virtually absent from Dutch faunal assemblages from
the late 5th till the late 4th millennium cal BC
5,7
. So, why would indigenous hunter-gatherers have preferred to first obtain only sheep/goat?
Similarly, among the oldest cereal grains at Bazel, no preference for a particular
cereal type can be observed, as grains of both Triticum aestivum s.l./turgidum s.l.,
Triticum cf. dicoccum, and Triticum sp. were found during excavations. Furthermore,
these early cereals clearly demonstrate the existence of networks involving exchange
of economic commodities with adjacent farming communities from the loess area as early
as 4850/4600 cal BC. Within this context the import of domesticated animals seems
much more plausible. So, rather than completely ignoring the early Bos sp. bones at
Bazel, we think it is better to include them in the discussion as potential evidence
for domesticated animals.
Concerning the difference in frequency of Bos taurus between the faunal assemblages
studied by Ervynck et al.
4
and Crombé et al.
2
, the most likely explanation is to be found in sampling differences. Over 85% of
the cattle bones within the latter assemblage, including nearly all fragments of horncore
and cranium, was retrieved from a very restricted zone of about 5 to 6 m radius. This
implies that most of these bones might belong to just one or a restricted number of
animals.
Further in our paper
2
we also discussed the nature of the domesticated animals found at Bazel, by exploring
the possibility of small-scale local husbandry prior to 4300/4000 cal BC. Based on
different, mostly indirect lines of evidence, we concluded that early husbandry might
have been possible, but that there is a strong need for further analysis mainly focusing
on isotopes to verify this. Brusgaard et al. contest this by claiming that our study
“does not provide new insights into the timing of incipient animal husbandry outside
the loess belt.” However, they do not discuss one of the most important arguments
in favor of early stock-breeding, i.e. the indication of the use of plant winter fodder
at two contemporaneous Swifterbant Culture sites, situated in the vicinity of Bazel.
At Doel-sector B
8
and sector M
9
high numbers of mistletoe charcoal and ivy seeds were found within several surface-hearths,
dated roughly between ca. 4600 and 4000 cal BC (Fig. 1). Both evergreens are known
to have been used as fodder widespread over Europe from the Middle Neolithic until
Medieval times to compensate for the restricted availability of grass during dry summers
or snowy winters and/or over periods of stalling (
9
and references therein). We consider this to be a strong indication for local husbandry
in the Lower-Scheldt valley at least from 4600/4500 cal BC onwards, which is 200 to
300 years earlier than the currently assumed start of local husbandry in the Dutch
wetlands and synchronic with the oldest sheep/goat bones from Bazel (Fig. 1). This
is further corroborated by the apparent disappearance of aurochs from the faunal spectrum
by the mid of the 5th millennium cal BC. At Bazel all dated aurochs bones (n = 7)
2
are situated in the first half of the 5th millennium cal BC, the youngest one dating
to between ca. 4600 and 4500 cal BC (1 sigma).
Figure 1
Sum probability distribution of radiocarbon dates from three Swifterbant Culture sites
in the Lower-Scheldt valley. (A) dates on bones from sheep/goat and possible cattle;
(B,C) dates on plant macroremains from surface-hearths. Both Doel-sites yielded evidence
of the use of plant winter fodder (mistletoe and ivy) from ca. 4600/4500 cal BC.
Concerning the comments raised on our interpretation of the δ13C, δ15N and 87Sr/86Sr
values, we fully agree that there is a need for regional carbon and strontium isoscape
studies and that many factors besides environmental settings could be in play. However,
waving away the observed interregional carbon differences as resulting from differences
in age and size of the animals seems a bit reductive. This particularly holds for
the sheep/goat remains from Bazel for which the differences in the carbon values with
specimens from other sites in the loess area are too significant to be explained solely
by size and/or age differences (Fig. 2). The sheep/goat bones from Bazel do not overlap
at all with other sites but form a very distinct group separated by at least 1 to
2‰ from the latter. Recent statistical research
10
has convincingly demonstrated that δ13C signatures vary on a latitudinal scale across
Europe as a result of differences in the natural environmental parameters of the local
habitats. At Bazel this is supported by the close correspondence of the carbon signal
between sheep/goat and wild herbivores, both aurochs and red deer, which most likely
reflects feeding on plants from similar ecological niches (Crombé et al., Fig. 6
2
). Either this is related to the seasonal uptake of 13C-depleted winter fodder (cf.
above)
11
or to domesticated animals browsing in the local forests. Either way, it renders additional
indirect support for local husbandry, although in the latter case the presence of
feral animals, which escaped from farmer settlements at distances of ca. 80 km from
Bazel needs also to be considered
12
. Anyhow, the current isotope evidence seems not really in support of gift-exchange
of butchered animal parts, as proposed by Brusgaard et al.
Figure 2
Stable isotope data obtained on sheep/goat bones from the site of Bazel, compared
to data from early and middle Neolithic sites in the adjacent loess region of Belgium
and France
10,15
.
Nonetheless, we are fully aware that strontium isotopes are much better suited for
tracing the origin of the first domesticates. Unfortunately so far strontium data
is only available for the youngest cluster of cattle remains at Bazel. We agree that
strontium values of at least three samples from Bazel also fit with the signatures
of the southern Netherlands, in particular from the dry coversand area south of the
Meuse/Rhine (isoscapes C & D
13
). However, it is very unlikely that cattle found at Bazel originates from that area
since currently there is hardly any evidence of 5th millennium farming communities
there
14
. So, we believe that our initial careful suggestion that either these cattle originate
from different areas, possibly within Belgium but other places are also possible,
or they were all grown locally but fed in different environments, still stands.
In conclusion, contrary to Brusgaard et al. we believe that our study does change
the existent image of the NW European lowlands prior to 4300/4000 cal BC by adding
direct evidence of domesticates, in particular sheep/goat and possibly some cattle,
as well as indirect evidence of early small-scale husbandry, mainly based on the remains
of winter fodder at Doel, at least from ca. 4600/4500 cal BC. Lacking evidence of
the use of winter fodder prior to this date, the nature of the older specimen of potentially
domesticated animals dated ca. 4800–4600 cal BC at Bazel currently remains unclear.
According to the stable isotopes these might equally well belong to feral animals
shot by local hunter-gatherers. Clearly Bazel, situated at relatively short distance
beyond the agro-pastoral frontier of the European loess region, is an important site
for understanding the start of local husbandry in the NW European lowlands, as further
in-depth analyses of bone isotopes and charred plant/wood remains from this site would
certainly yield interesting new data.