Phenothiazine normalizes the NADH/NAD ⁺ ratio, maintains mitochondrial integrity and protects the nigrostriatal dopamine system in a chronic rotenone model of Parkinson's disease

Abstract

Impaired mitochondrial function has been associated with the etiopathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD). Sustained inhibition of complex I produces mitochondrial dysfunction, which is related to oxidative injury and nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) neurodegeneration. This study aimed to identify disease-modifying treatments for PD. Unsubstituted phenothiazine (PTZ) is a small and uncharged aromatic imine that readily crosses the blood-brain barrier. PTZ lacks significant DA receptor-binding activity and, in the nanomolar range, exhibits protective effects via its potent free radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory activities. Given that DAergic neurons are highly vulnerable to oxidative damage and inflammation, we hypothesized that administration of PTZ might confer neuroprotection in different experimental models of PD. Our findings showed that PTZ rescues rotenone (ROT) toxicity in primary ventral midbrain neuronal cultures by preserving neuronal integrity and reducing protein thiol oxidation. Long-term treatment with PTZ improved animal weight, survival rate, and behavioral deficits in ROT-lesioned rats. PTZ protected DA content and fiber density in the striatum and DA neurons in the SN against the deleterious effects of ROT. Mitochondrial dysfunction, axonal impairment, oxidative insult, and inflammatory response were attenuated with PTZ therapy. Furthermore, we have provided a new insight into the molecular mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effects of PTZ.

Graphical abstract

Highlights

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  Rotenone recapitulates many of the behavioral, neurochemical, and neuropathological features of PD in rats.

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  Phenothiazine preserves neuronal integrity in primary ventral midbrain neuronal cultures incubated with ROT.

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  PTZ prevents PD-like features in ROT-injected rats, including nigrostriatal DA degeneration and mitochondrial dysfunction.

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  We have provided new insights into the molecular mechanism underlying the neuroprotective effects of PTZ.