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      Detection and identification of pathogenic trypanosome species in tsetse flies along the Comoé River in Côte d’Ivoire Translated title: Détection et identification des espèces de trypanosomes pathogènes chez les glossines le long du fleuve Comoé en Côte d’Ivoire

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          Abstract

          In order to identify pathogenic trypanosomes responsible for African trypanosomiasis, and to better understand tsetse-trypanosome relationships, surveys were undertaken in three sites located in different eco-climatic areas in Côte d’Ivoire during the dry and rainy seasons. Tsetse flies were caught during five consecutive days using biconical traps, dissected and microscopically examined looking for trypanosome infection. Samples from infected flies were tested by PCR using specific primers for Trypanosoma brucei s.l., T. congolense savannah type, T. congolense forest type and T. vivax. Of 1941 tsetse flies caught including four species, i.e. Glossina palpalis palpalis, G. p. gambiensis, G. tachinoides and G. medicorum, 513 (26%) were dissected and 60 (12%) were found positive by microscopy. Up to 41% of the infections were due to T. congolense savannah type, 30% to T. vivax, 20% to T. congolense forest type and 9% due to T. brucei s.l. All four trypanosome species and subgroups were identified from G. tachinoides and G. p. palpalis, while only two were isolated from G. p. gambiensis ( T. brucei s.l., T. congolense savannah type) and G. medicorum ( T. congolense forest, savannah types). Mixed infections were found in 25% of cases and all involved T. congolense savannah type with another trypanosome species. The simultaneous occurrence of T. brucei s.l., and tsetse from the palpalis group may suggest that human trypanosomiasis can still be a constraint in these localities, while high rates of T. congolense and T. vivax in the area suggest a potential risk of animal trypanosomiasis in livestock along the Comoé River.

          Translated abstract

          Dans le but d’identifier les trypanosomes responsables de trypanosomoses africaines humaine et animale et de mieux connaître leurs relations avec les tsé-tsé, des enquêtes ont été réalisées dans trois sites situés dans différentes zones éco-climatiques de Côte d’Ivoire et ce, durant les saisons sèche et pluvieuse. Les glossines ont été capturées durant 5 jours consécutifs en utilisant des pièges biconiques, disséquées et examinées au microscope à la recherche d’infection trypanosomienne. Des échantillons de glossines infectées ont été analysées par PCR en utilisant des amorces spécifiques à Trypanosoma brucei s.l., T. congolense type savane, T. congolense type forêt et T. vivax. Sur les 1941 tsé-tsé capturées et comprenant 4 espèces, Glossina palpalis palpalis, G. p. gambiensis, G. tachinoides et G. medicorum, 513 (26 %) ont été disséquées et 60 (12 %) ont été trouvées positives par microscopie. Une proportion allant jusqu’à 41 % des infections était due à T. congolense type savane, 30 % à T. vivax, 20 % à T. congolense type forêt et 9 % à T. brucei s.l. Les quatre espèces et sous-groupes de trypanosomes ont été isolés chez G. tachinoides et G. p. palpalis tandis que seulement deux ont été isolés chez G. p. gambiensis ( T. brucei s.l., T. congolense type savane) et G. medicorum ( T. congolense types forêt et savane). Les infections mixtes ont été retrouvées dans 25 % des cas et toutes impliquaient T. congolense type savane et une autre espèce de trypanosome. La présence simultanée de T. brucei s.l. et de mouches tsétsé du groupe palpalis suggère que la trypanosomose humaine peut encore être une contrainte dans ces localités. Le taux élevé de T. congolense et de T. vivax dans cette zone suggère un risque potentiellement élevé de trypanosomose animale chez le bétail le long du fleuve Comoé.

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          Most cited references23

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          Epidemiology of human African trypanosomiasis

          Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, is caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense, which is a chronic form of the disease present in western and central Africa, and by Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense, which is an acute disease located in eastern and southern Africa. The rhodesiense form is a zoonosis, with the occasional infection of humans, but in the gambiense form, the human being is regarded as the main reservoir that plays a key role in the transmission cycle of the disease. The gambiense form currently assumes that 98% of the cases are declared; the Democratic Republic of the Congo is the most affected country, with more than 75% of the gambiense cases declared. The epidemiology of the disease is mediated by the interaction of the parasite (trypanosome) with the vectors (tsetse flies), as well as with the human and animal hosts within a particular environment. Related to these interactions, the disease is confined in spatially limited areas called “foci”, which are located in Sub-Saharan Africa, mainly in remote rural areas. The risk of contracting HAT is, therefore, determined by the possibility of contact of a human being with an infected tsetse fly. Epidemics of HAT were described at the beginning of the 20th century; intensive activities have been set up to confront the disease, and it was under control in the 1960s, with fewer than 5,000 cases reported in the whole continent. The disease resurged at the end of the 1990s, but renewed efforts from endemic countries, cooperation agencies, and nongovernmental organizations led by the World Health Organization succeeded to raise awareness and resources, while reinforcing national programs, reversing the trend of the cases reported, and bringing the disease under control again. In this context, sustainable elimination of the gambiense HAT, defined as the interruption of the transmission of the disease, was considered as a feasible target for 2030. Since rhodesiense HAT is a zoonosis, where the animal reservoir plays a key role, the interruption of the disease’s transmission is not deemed feasible.
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            Eliminating Human African Trypanosomiasis: Where Do We Stand and What Comes Next>

            While the number of new detected cases of HAT is falling, say the authors, sleeping sickness could suffer the "punishment of success," receiving lower priority by public and private health institutions.
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              Innate immune responses regulate trypanosome parasite infection of the tsetse fly Glossina morsitans morsitans.

              Tsetse flies transmit the protozoan parasite African trypanosomes, the agents of human sleeping sickness in sub-Saharan Africa. Parasite transmission in the insect is restricted by a natural resistance phenomenon (refractoriness). Understanding the mechanism of parasite resistance is important as strengthening fly's response(s) via transgenic approaches can prevent parasite transmission and lead to the development of novel vector control strategies. Here, we investigated the role of one of the two major pathways regulating innate immunity in invertebrates, the immunodeficiency (Imd) pathway, for Glossina morsitans morsitans's natural defence against Trypanosoma brucei spp. infections. We determined the molecular structure of the Imd pathway transcriptional activator Relish (GmmRel), which shows high amino acid identity and structural similarity to its Drosophila homologue. Through a double-stranded RNA-based interference approach, we showed that the pathogen-induced expression profile of the antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) attacin and cecropin is under the regulation of GmmRel. Unexpectedly, the AMP diptericin appears to be constitutively expressed in tsetse independent of the presence of the Rel factor. Through GmmRel knock-down, we could successfully block the induction of attacin and cecropin expression in the immune responsive tissues fat body and proventriculus (cardia) following microbial challenge. The midgut and salivary gland trypanosome infection prevalence, as well as the intensity of midgut parasite infections were found to be significantly higher in flies when attacin and relish expression were knocked down. Our results provide the first direct evidence for the involvement of antimicrobial peptides in trypanosome transmission in tsetse.
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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Parasite
                Parasite
                parasite
                Parasite
                EDP Sciences
                1252-607X
                1776-1042
                2015
                02 June 2015
                : 22
                : ( publisher-idID: parasite/2015/01 )
                : 18
                Affiliations
                [1 ] Institut Pierre Richet/INSP 01 BP 1500 Bouaké Côte d’Ivoire
                [2 ] Université Félix Houphouët Boigny BPV 34 Abidjan Côte d’Ivoire
                [3 ] CIRDES BP 454 Bobo-Dioulasso Burkina Faso
                [4 ] IRD UMR 177 INTERTRYP-IRD-CIRAD 34398 Montpellier France
                Author notes
                [* ]Corresponding author: vincentdjohan1@ 123456yahoo.fr
                Article
                parasite150004 10.1051/parasite/2015018
                10.1051/parasite/2015018
                4452044
                26035296
                94dd5491-841b-429b-adde-68deb2119c00
                © V. Djohan et al., published by EDP Sciences, 2015

                This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

                History
                : 08 January 2015
                : 15 May 2015
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 3, Equations: 0, References: 31, Pages: 7
                Categories
                Research Article

                trypanosomes,trypanosomiasis,riverine tsetse flies,côte d’ivoire

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