Species-Specific Activity of HIV-1 Vpu and Positive Selection of Tetherin Transmembrane Domain Variants

Abstract

Tetherin/BST-2/CD317 is a recently identified antiviral protein that blocks the release of nascent retrovirus, and other virus, particles from infected cells. An HIV-1 accessory protein, Vpu, acts as an antagonist of tetherin. Here, we show that positive selection is evident in primate tetherin sequences and that HIV-1 Vpu appears to have specifically adapted to antagonize variants of tetherin found in humans and chimpanzees. Tetherin variants found in rhesus macaques (rh), African green monkeys (agm) and mice were able to inhibit HIV-1 particle release, but were resistant to antagonism by HIV-1 Vpu. Notably, reciprocal exchange of transmembrane domains between human and monkey tetherins conferred sensitivity and resistance to Vpu, identifying this protein domain as a critical determinant of Vpu function. Indeed, differences between hu-tetherin and rh-tetherin at several positions in the transmembrane domain affected sensitivity to antagonism by Vpu. Two alterations in the hu-tetherin transmembrane domain, that correspond to differences found in rh- and agm-tetherin proteins, were sufficient to render hu-tetherin completely resistant to HIV-1 Vpu. Interestingly, transmembrane and cytoplasmic domain sequences in primate tetherins exhibit variation at numerous codons that is likely the result of positive selection, and some of these changes coincide with determinants of HIV-1 Vpu sensitivity. Overall, these data indicate that tetherin could impose a barrier to viral zoonosis as a consequence of positive selection that has been driven by ancient viral antagonists, and that the HIV-1 Vpu protein has specialized to target the transmembrane domains found in human/chimpanzee tetherin proteins.

Author Summary

Tetherin is a cell surface protein that acts as an antiviral defense. It functions by tethering newly assembled HIV-1 particles to the surface of the infected cell, such that the viral particle is unable to depart and disseminate to other, uninfected cells. HIV-1 possesses an antagonist of tetherin, termed Vpu, that abolishes tetherin function. We found that HIV-1 is an effective antagonist of human and chimpanzee variants of tetherin but is unable to antagonize tetherins from two monkey species. Additionally, we found that sequence differences in a portion of the protein that is embedded in cell membranes determined whether or not it could be antagonized by Vpu. Since the Vpu protein is alsi a membrane embedded protein, this result suggests that Vpu and tetherin interact within cell membranes. We also show that tetherin has been evolving rapidly, and has likely been placed under selective pressure to change sequence. Notably, portions of tetherin that appear to have been placed under selective pressure coincide with positions that influence Vpu antagonism. Therefore, the evolutionary history of primates determines the effectiveness of HIV-1 Vpu in modern species. Thus, tetherin could impose a barrier to cross species transmission of retroviruses.