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      Extension of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to Predict Patterns of Marijuana Use among Young Iranian Adults

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          Abstract

          Background: Marijuana use is increasing among adolescents and young adults. Long-term marijuana use magnifies the risk of a wide variety of behavioral, cognitive-emotional, and neurological problems, and can be a gateway to use of other drugs. In the present study, we investigated the cognitive-emotional and behavioral predictors of marijuana use. To this end, young Iranian adults answered questions based on an extended Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) and related it to marijuana use. We hypothesized that cognitive-emotional and behavioral factors would predict intention to use marijuana, and that this, in turn, would predict actual consumption. Methods: A total of 166 young Iranian adults (mean age: 20.51 years; 15.7% females) attending a walk-in center for drug use took part in this cross-sectional study. Participants completed questionnaires covering sociodemographic information, frequency of marijuana use per week, along with questionnaires assessing the following dimensions of the TPB: attitude towards marijuana use, subjective norms, self-efficacy to resist marijuana use, environmental constraints, problem-solving skills, and behavioral intention for marijuana use. Results: Mean marijuana use was found to be 4.6 times/week. Attitude towards marijuana use, subjective norms, environmental constraints, and behavioral intention to use marijuana were positively correlated to each other and with marijuana use/week. In contrast, higher self-efficacy and problem-solving skills were associated with lower marijuana use/week. The multiple regression analysis showed that a positive attitude to marijuana use, lower self-efficacy in resisting its use, higher behavioral intention, and poorer problem-solving skills predicted actual use. Conclusion: The pattern of results suggests that dimensions of TPB can explain marijuana use among young Iranian adults self-admitted to a walk-in center for drug use. Specifically, poor problem-solving skills, low self-efficacy in resisting marijuana use, and positive labelling of its use appeared to be the best predictors of actual use. It follows that prevention programs aimed at improving problem-solving skills and raising self-efficacy, along with educational interventions aimed at highlighting the negative effects of marijuana might decrease the risk of its use among young adults in Iran.

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          Most cited references32

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          The adolescent brain and age-related behavioral manifestations.

          L Spear (2000)
          To successfully negotiate the developmental transition between youth and adulthood, adolescents must maneuver this often stressful period while acquiring skills necessary for independence. Certain behavioral features, including age-related increases in social behavior and risk-taking/novelty-seeking, are common among adolescents of diverse mammalian species and may aid in this process. Reduced positive incentive values from stimuli may lead adolescents to pursue new appetitive reinforcers through drug use and other risk-taking behaviors, with their relative insensitivity to drugs supporting comparatively greater per occasion use. Pubertal increases in gonadal hormones are a hallmark of adolescence, although there is little evidence for a simple association of these hormones with behavioral change during adolescence. Prominent developmental transformations are seen in prefrontal cortex and limbic brain regions of adolescents across a variety of species, alterations that include an apparent shift in the balance between mesocortical and mesolimbic dopamine systems. Developmental changes in these stressor-sensitive regions, which are critical for attributing incentive salience to drugs and other stimuli, likely contribute to the unique characteristics of adolescence.
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            The endocannabinoid system and the brain.

            The psychoactive constituent in cannabis, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), was isolated in the mid-1960s, but the cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2, and the major endogenous cannabinoids (anandamide and 2-arachidonoyl glycerol) were identified only 20 to 25 years later. The cannabinoid system affects both central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral processes. In this review, we have tried to summarize research--with an emphasis on recent publications--on the actions of the endocannabinoid system on anxiety, depression, neurogenesis, reward, cognition, learning, and memory. The effects are at times biphasic--lower doses causing effects opposite to those seen at high doses. Recently, numerous endocannabinoid-like compounds have been identified in the brain. Only a few have been investigated for their CNS activity, and future investigations on their action may throw light on a wide spectrum of brain functions.
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              Problem solving and behavior modification.

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                Author and article information

                Journal
                Int J Environ Res Public Health
                Int J Environ Res Public Health
                ijerph
                International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
                MDPI
                1661-7827
                1660-4601
                17 March 2020
                March 2020
                : 17
                : 6
                : 1981
                Affiliations
                [1 ]Lifestyle Modification Research Center, Imam Reza Hospital, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6719851351, Iran; f_jalilian@ 123456yahoo.com
                [2 ]Social Development & Health Promotion Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6719851351, Iran; mehdimirzaiea@ 123456yahoo.com (M.M.-A.); r_pirouzeh@ 123456yahoo.com (R.P.)
                [3 ]Behavioral Disorders and Substance Abuse Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan 6719851351, Iran; m1ahmad2000@ 123456gmail.com
                [4 ]Medical Biology Research Center Research, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences, Kermanshah 6719851351, Iran; Shayanmostafaee@ 123456yahoo.com
                [5 ]Department of Health Promotion, Faculty of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz 7134814336, Iran; kargarmehdi4@ 123456gmail.com
                [6 ]Psychiatric Clinics of the University of Basel, Center for Affective, Stress und Sleep Disorders, University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland; dena.sadeghibahmani@ 123456upk.ch
                [7 ]Departments of Physical Therapy, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35209, USA
                [8 ]Sleep Disorders Research Center, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences (KUMS), Kermanshah 6719851115, Iran
                [9 ]Substance Abuse Prevention Research Center, Health Institute, Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences (KUMS), Kermanshah 6719851115, Iran
                [10 ]School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran 1416753955, Iran
                [11 ]Department of Sport, Exercise and Health, Division of Sport and Psychosocial Health, University of Basel, 4053 Basel, Switzerland
                Author notes
                [* ]Correspondence: serge.brand@ 123456upk.ch
                Author information
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5923-7016
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3695-6971
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1966-1306
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4270-5239
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0858-8630
                https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1301-5522
                https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2175-2765
                Article
                ijerph-17-01981
                10.3390/ijerph17061981
                7142430
                32192209
                96a89274-fda7-43d3-99e7-51529c3d9892
                © 2020 by the authors.

                Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                : 17 February 2020
                : 14 March 2020
                Categories
                Article

                Public health
                marijuana use,theory of planned behavior,young adults,problem-solving skills,self-efficacy

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