Liraglutide-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) microspheres: Preparation and in vivo evaluation

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Abstract

In this work, we sought to generate sustained-release injectable microspheres loaded with the GLP-1 analogue liraglutide. Using water-in-oil-in-water double emulsion methods, poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres loaded with liraglutide were prepared. The microspheres gave sustained drug release over 30days, with cumulative release of up to 90% reached in vitro. The microspheres were further studied in a rat model of diabetes, and their performance compared with a group given daily liraglutide injections. Reduced blood sugar levels were seen in the microsphere treatment groups, with the results being similar to those obtained with conventional injections between 10 and 25days after the commencement of treatment. After 5 and 30days of treatment, the microspheres seem a little slower to act than the injections. The pathology of the rats' spleen, heart, kidney and lungs was probed after the 30-day treatment period, and the results indicated that the microspheres were safe and had beneficial effects on the liver, reducing the occurrence of fatty deposits seen in untreated diabetic rats. Moreover, in terms of liver, renal and cardiac functions, and blood lipid and antioxidant levels, the microspheres were as effective as the injections. The expression of several proteases linked to the metabolism of aliphatic acids and homocysteine was promoted by the microsphere formulations. Inflammatory markers in the microsphere treatment groups were somewhat higher than the injection group, however. The liraglutide/PLGA microspheres prepared in this work are overall shown to be efficacious in a rat model of diabetes, and we thus believe they have strong potential for clinical use.

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Inflammation and activated innate immunity in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes.

John C. Pickup (2004)

There is increasing evidence that an ongoing cytokine-induced acute-phase response (sometimes called low-grade inflammation, but part of a widespread activation of the innate immune system) is closely involved in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes and associated complications such as dyslipidemia and atherosclerosis. Elevated circulating inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 predict the development of type 2 diabetes, and several drugs with anti-inflammatory properties lower both acute-phase reactants and glycemia (aspirin and thiazolidinediones) and possibly decrease the risk of developing type 2 diabetes (statins). Among the risk factors for type 2 diabetes, which are also known to be associated with activated innate immunity, are age, inactivity, certain dietary components, smoking, psychological stress, and low birth weight. Activated immunity may be the common antecedent of both type 2 diabetes and atherosclerosis, which probably develop in parallel. Other features of type 2 diabetes, such as fatigue, sleep disturbance, and depression, are likely to be at least partly due to hypercytokinemia and activated innate immunity. Further research is needed to confirm and clarify the role of innate immunity in type 2 diabetes, particularly the extent to which inflammation in type 2 diabetes is a primary abnormality or partly secondary to hyperglycemia, obesity, atherosclerosis, or other common features of the disease.

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The economic burden of elevated blood glucose levels in 2012: diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes, gestational diabetes mellitus, and prediabetes.

Timothy M Dall, Wenya Yang, Pragna Halder … (2014)

To update estimates of the economic burden of undiagnosed diabetes, prediabetes, and gestational diabetes mellitus in 2012 in the U.S. and to present state-level estimates. Combined with published estimates for diagnosed diabetes, these statistics provide a detailed picture of the economic costs associated with elevated glucose levels.

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In vivo evaluation of the biodistribution and safety of PLGA nanoparticles as drug delivery systems.

Ndealilia Swai, E L Booysen, Yolandy Lemmer … (2010)

The remarkable physicochemical properties of particles in the nanometer range have been proven to address many challenges in the field of science. However, the possible toxic effects of these particles have raised some concerns. The aim of this article is to evaluate the effects of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo compared to industrial nanoparticles of a similar size range such as zinc oxide, ferrous oxide, and fumed silica. An in vitro cytotoxicity study was conducted to assess the cell viability following exposure to PLGA nanoparticles. Viability was determined by means of a WST assay, wherein cell viability of greater than 75% was observed for both PLGA and amorphous fumed silica particles and ferrous oxide, but was significantly reduced for zinc oxide particles. In vivo toxicity assays were performed via histopathological evaluation, and no specific anatomical pathological changes or tissue damage was observed in the tissues of Balb/C mice. The extent of tissue distribution and retention following oral administration of PLGA particles was analyzed for 7 days. After 7 days, the particles remained detectable in the brain, heart, kidney, liver, lungs, and spleen. The results show that a mean percentage (40.04%) of the particles were localized in the liver, 25.97% in the kidney, and 12.86% in the brain. The lowest percentage was observed in the spleen. Thus, based on these assays, it can be concluded that the toxic effects observed with various industrial nanoparticles will not be observed with particles made of synthetic polymers such as PLGA when applied in the field of nanomedicine. Furthermore, the biodistribution of the particles warrants surface modification of the particles to avoid higher particle localization in the liver. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo compared to industrial nanoparticles including zinc oxide, ferrous oxide, and fumed silica. The authors concluded that the toxic effects observed with various industrial nanoparticles is unlikely to be observed with particles made of PLGA. The biodistribution of these particles warrants surface modification to avoid particle accumulation in the liver. Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.