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      Radiographic assessment of pectoral flipper bone maturation in bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus), as a novel technique to accurately estimate chronological age

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          Abstract

          Accurate age estimation in wildlife conservation is an important diagnostic tool in the interpretation of biological data, necropsy examination, reproductive status and population demographics. The most frequently utilized methods to age bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus) include tooth extraction; counting dental growth layer groups and dental radiography. These methods are inaccurate in dolphins > 13 years old, due to overlapping of the growth layer groups in dolphins and worn teeth. Establishing a non-invasive method of accurately aging bottlenose dolphins across the entire age range is important to long term conservation efforts to understand health status, lifespan, reproduction and survivability. A database of 126 radiographs from 94 dolphins of known chronological age was utilized to establish the stages of skeletal ossification over time. A numerical score from -1 to 8 was assigned to 16 anatomic locations on the pectoral radiograph, to create a formula to estimate age. The most informative areas to evaluate morphologically were the metaphyseal regions of the radius and ulna, and the proximal and distal epiphysis of metacarpals II and III. Third order polynomial regression calculated separate age predictor formulas for male and female dolphins, with females reaching sexual maturity earlier than males. Completion of epiphyseal closure of the long bones correlated with average sexual maturity. Managed care dolphin ages could be properly estimated with decreasing precision from within 3 months in animals < 5 years old, to within 5 years in animals > 30 years old. This diagnostic tool could also be applied to diagnose atypical ossification patterns consistent with nutritional, developmental or growth abnormalities, and identifying subclinical health issues. In conclusion, knowledge of the lifespan and the onset of sexual maturity for each species will allow this model to be applied to other cetaceans, facilitating age estimation via pectoral radiography in future research.

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          Resurrection of vitamin D deficiency and rickets.

          The epidemic scourge of rickets in the 19th century was caused by vitamin D deficiency due to inadequate sun exposure and resulted in growth retardation, muscle weakness, skeletal deformities, hypocalcemia, tetany, and seizures. The encouragement of sensible sun exposure and the fortification of milk with vitamin D resulted in almost complete eradication of the disease. Vitamin D (where D represents D2 or D3) is biologically inert and metabolized in the liver to 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D], the major circulating form of vitamin D that is used to determine vitamin D status. 25(OH)D is activated in the kidneys to 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D [1,25(OH)2D], which regulates calcium, phosphorus, and bone metabolism. Vitamin D deficiency has again become an epidemic in children, and rickets has become a global health issue. In addition to vitamin D deficiency, calcium deficiency and acquired and inherited disorders of vitamin D, calcium, and phosphorus metabolism cause rickets. This review summarizes the role of vitamin D in the prevention of rickets and its importance in the overall health and welfare of infants and children.
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            Health of common bottlenose dolphins ( Tursiops truncatus ) in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, following the deepwater horizon oil spill.

            The oil spill resulting from the explosion of the Deepwater Horizon drilling platform initiated immediate concern for marine wildlife, including common bottlenose dolphins in sensitive coastal habitats. To evaluate potential sublethal effects on dolphins, health assessments were conducted in Barataria Bay, Louisiana, an area that received heavy and prolonged oiling, and in a reference site, Sarasota Bay, Florida, where oil was not observed. Dolphins were temporarily captured, received a veterinary examination, and were then released. Dolphins sampled in Barataria Bay showed evidence of hypoadrenocorticism, consistent with adrenal toxicity as previously reported for laboratory mammals exposed to oil. Barataria Bay dolphins were 5 times more likely to have moderate-severe lung disease, generally characterized by significant alveolar interstitial syndrome, lung masses, and pulmonary consolidation. Of 29 dolphins evaluated from Barataria Bay, 48% were given a guarded or worse prognosis, and 17% were considered poor or grave, indicating that they were not expected to survive. Disease conditions in Barataria Bay dolphins were significantly greater in prevalence and severity than those in Sarasota Bay dolphins, as well as those previously reported in other wild dolphin populations. Many disease conditions observed in Barataria Bay dolphins are uncommon but consistent with petroleum hydrocarbon exposure and toxicity.
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              Age and growth estimates of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) via aspartic acid racemization

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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: MethodologyRole: ValidationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Formal analysisRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: MethodologyRole: SupervisionRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Data curationRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: ConceptualizationRole: Data curationRole: Formal analysisRole: InvestigationRole: MethodologyRole: Project administrationRole: SupervisionRole: ValidationRole: VisualizationRole: Writing – original draftRole: Writing – review & editing
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, CA USA )
                1932-6203
                26 September 2019
                2019
                : 14
                : 9
                : e0222722
                Affiliations
                [1 ] National Marine Mammal Foundation, San Diego, California, United States of America
                [2 ] Radiology Department, Hospital Quironsalud Valencia, Blasco Ibáñez, Valencia, Spain
                [3 ] SeaWorld, San Diego, California, United States of America
                [4 ] U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program, San Diego, California, United States of America
                [5 ] Fundación Oceanogràfic de la Comunidad Valenciana, Gran Vía Marqués del Turia, Valencia, Spain
                Animal Health Centre, CANADA
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have read the journal's policy and the authors of this manuscript have the following competing interests: TS is a paid employee of Seaworld. This does not alter our adherence to PLOS ONE policies on sharing data and materials. There are no patents, products in development or marketed products to declare.

                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3027-5892
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3659-1389
                Article
                PONE-D-19-16420
                10.1371/journal.pone.0222722
                6762177
                31557197
                98e8a389-e201-49a4-a4f9-860ae33b1388
                © 2019 Barratclough et al

                This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

                History
                : 27 June 2019
                : 5 September 2019
                Page count
                Figures: 11, Tables: 3, Pages: 25
                Funding
                Funded by: funder-id http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/100007240, Gulf of Mexico Research Initiative;
                Award ID: GOMRI2015-V-186
                Seaworld provided support this study in the form of salaries for TS. SeaWorld provided the radiographic equipment used to take the radiographs of the dolphins at SeaWorld as well as the salaries of veterinary technicians and trainers involved in the logistics of obtaining the radiographs. SeaWorld did not have any additional role in the study design, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. The specific roles of these authors are articulated in the ‘author contributions’ section. Partial funding for this study was also received from the Gulf of Mexico Research Institute Grant Number GOMRI2015-V-186.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Physiology
                Physiological Processes
                Bone Remodeling
                Ossification
                Medicine and Health Sciences
                Physiology
                Physiological Processes
                Bone Remodeling
                Ossification
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Organisms
                Eukaryota
                Animals
                Vertebrates
                Amniotes
                Mammals
                Marine Mammals
                Dolphins
                Biology and Life Sciences
                Marine Biology
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                Dolphins
                Earth Sciences
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                Developmental Biology
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                Physiology
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                Anatomy
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