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      ER–Mitochondria Microdomains in Cardiac Ischemia–Reperfusion Injury: A Fresh Perspective

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          Abstract

          The mitochondrial and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis is pivotal to the maintenance of an array of physiological processes. The physical contact and association between ER and mitochondria, known as the ER–mitochondria microdomains or mitochondria-associated ER membrane (MAM), temporally and spatially regulates the mitochondria/ER structure and function. More evidence suggests a role for MAMs in energy production, cellular contraction and mobility, and normal extracellular signal transmission. In pathological states, such as cardiac ischemia–reperfusion (I/R injury), this ER–mitochondria microdomains may act to participate in the cellular redox imbalance, ER stress, mitochondrial injury, energy deletion, and programmed cell death. From a therapeutic perspective, a better understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the pathogenic ER–mitochondria contact should help to identify potential therapeutic target for cardiac I/R injury and other cardiovascular diseases and also pave the road to new treatment modalities pertinent for the treatment of reperfusion damage in clinical practice. This review will mainly focus on the possible signaling pathways involved in the regulation of the ER–mitochondria contact. In particular, we will summarize the downstream signaling modalities influenced by ER–mitochondria microdomains, for example, mitochondrial fission, mitophagy, calcium balance, oxidative stress, and programmed cell death in details.

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          Most cited references124

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          Mitochondria supply membranes for autophagosome biogenesis during starvation.

          Starvation-induced autophagosomes engulf cytosol and/or organelles and deliver them to lysosomes for degradation, thereby resupplying depleted nutrients. Despite advances in understanding the molecular basis of this process, the membrane origin of autophagosomes remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that, in starved cells, the outer membrane of mitochondria participates in autophagosome biogenesis. The early autophagosomal marker, Atg5, transiently localizes to punctae on mitochondria, followed by the late autophagosomal marker, LC3. The tail-anchor of an outer mitochondrial membrane protein also labels autophagosomes and is sufficient to deliver another outer mitochondrial membrane protein, Fis1, to autophagosomes. The fluorescent lipid NBD-PS (converted to NBD-phosphotidylethanolamine in mitochondria) transfers from mitochondria to autophagosomes. Photobleaching reveals membranes of mitochondria and autophagosomes are transiently shared. Disruption of mitochondria/ER connections by mitofusin2 depletion dramatically impairs starvation-induced autophagy. Mitochondria thus play a central role in starvation-induced autophagy, contributing membrane to autophagosomes. Copyright (c) 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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            Calcium and Excitation-Contraction Coupling in the Heart

            Cardiac contractility is regulated by changes in intracellular Ca concentration ([Ca2+]i). Normal function requires that [Ca2+]i be sufficiently high in systole and low in diastole. Much of the Ca needed for contraction comes from the sarcoplasmic reticulum and is released by the process of calcium-induced calcium release. The factors that regulate and fine-tune the initiation and termination of release are reviewed. The precise control of intracellular Ca cycling depends on the relationships between the various channels and pumps that are involved. We consider 2 aspects: (1) structural coupling: the transporters are organized within the dyad, linking the transverse tubule and sarcoplasmic reticulum and ensuring close proximity of Ca entry to sites of release. (2) Functional coupling: where the fluxes across all membranes must be balanced such that, in the steady state, Ca influx equals Ca efflux on every beat. The remainder of the review considers specific aspects of Ca signaling, including the role of Ca buffers, mitochondria, Ca leak, and regulation of diastolic [Ca2+]i.
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              Mitochondrial fusion, fission and autophagy as a quality control axis: the bioenergetic view.

              The mitochondrial life cycle consists of frequent fusion and fission events. Ample experimental and clinical data demonstrate that inhibition of either fusion or fission results in deterioration of mitochondrial bioenergetics. While fusion may benefit mitochondrial function by allowing the spreading of metabolites, protein and DNA throughout the network, the functional benefit of fission is not as intuitive. Remarkably, studies that track individual mitochondria through fusion and fission found that the two events are paired and that fusion triggers fission. On average each mitochondrion would go though approximately 5 fusion:fission cycles every hour. Measurement of Deltapsi(m) during single fusion and fission events demonstrates that fission may yield uneven daughter mitochondria where the depolarized daughter is less likely to become involved in a subsequent fusion and is more likely to be targeted by autophagy. Based on these observations we propose a mechanism by which the integration of mitochondrial fusion, fission and autophagy forms a quality maintenance mechanism. According to this hypothesis pairs of fusion and fission allow for the reorganization and sequestration of damaged mitochondrial components into daughter mitochondria that are segregated from the networking pool and then becoming eliminated by autophagy.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Physiol
                Front Physiol
                Front. Physiol.
                Frontiers in Physiology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                1664-042X
                15 June 2018
                2018
                : 9
                : 755
                Affiliations
                [1] 1Chinese People’s Liberation Army General Hospital, People’s Liberation Army Medical School , Beijing, China
                [2] 2Center for Cardiovascular Research and Alternative Medicine, University of Wyoming College of Health Sciences , Laramie, WY, United States
                [3] 3Department of Cardiology, Zhong Shan Hospital, Fudan University , Shanghai, China
                Author notes

                Edited by: Di Lang, University of Wisconsin–Madison, United States

                Reviewed by: Coert J. Zuurbier, Academic Medical Center (AMC), Netherlands; Claudia Penna, Università degli Studi di Torino, Italy

                This article was submitted to Cardiac Electrophysiology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Physiology

                Article
                10.3389/fphys.2018.00755
                6013587
                29962971
                9b9954ad-f21f-4707-bf2d-c9f0bc254356
                Copyright © 2018 Zhou, Wang, Hu, Chen and Ren.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 06 April 2018
                : 29 May 2018
                Page count
                Figures: 2, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 161, Pages: 13, Words: 0
                Funding
                Funded by: National Natural Science Foundation of China 10.13039/501100001809
                Award ID: 81770237
                Categories
                Physiology
                Review

                Anatomy & Physiology
                er–mitochondria microdomains,ischemia/reperfusion injury,mitochondrial fission,mitophagy,oxidative stress,calcium signaling,cell death

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