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      Understanding the mechanisms of glutamine action in critically ill patients

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          Abstract

          Glutamine (Gln) is an important energy source and has been used as a supplementary energy substrate. Furthermore, Gln is an essential component for numerous metabolic functions, including acid-base homeostasis, gluconeogenesis, nitrogen transport and synthesis of proteins and nucleic acids. Therefore, glutamine plays a significant role in cell homeostasis and organ metabolism. This article aims to review the mechanisms of glutamine action during severe illnesses. In critically ill patients, the increase in mortality was associated with a decreased plasma Gln concentration. During catabolic stress, Gln consumption rate exceeds the supply, and both plasma and skeletal muscle pools of free Gln are severely reduced. The dose and route of Gln administration clearly influence its effectiveness: high-dose parenteral appears to be more beneficial than low-dose enteral administration. Experimental studies reported that Gln may protect cells, tissues, and whole organisms from stress and injury through the following mechanisms: attenuation of NF (nuclear factor)-kB activation, a balance between pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, reduction in neutrophil accumulation, improvement in intestinal integrity and immune cell function, and enhanced of heat shock protein expression. In conclusion, high-doses of parenteral Gln (>0.50 g/kg/day) demonstrate a greater potential to benefit in critically ill patients, although Gln pathophysiological mechanisms requires elucidation.

          Translated abstract

          A glutamina (Gln) é uma importante fonte de energia e tem sido usada como substrato energético suplementar. Além disso, a Gln é um componente essencial para numerosas funções metabólicas tais como: homeostase ácido-base, gliconeogênese, transporte de nitrogênio e síntese de proteínas e ácidos nucléicos. Portanto, a glutamina desempenha um papel importante na homeostase celular e no metabolismo dos órgãos. Esse artigo objetiva rever os mecanismos de ação da glutamina na doença grave. Em pacientes criticamente enfermos, o aumento da mortalidade foi associado com uma diminuição de Gln plasmática. Durante o estresse catabólico, o consumo de Gln excede a oferta, e a quantidade de glutamina livre no plasma e músculo esquelético encontra-se reduzida. A dose e via de administração da Gln claramente influencia sua eficácia: alta dose por via parenteral parece ser mais benéfica do que uma dose baixa administrada por via enteral. Estudos experimentais relataram que Gln protege as células, tecidos, e todo o organismo do estresse através dos seguintes mecanismos: atenuação na ativação do fator nuclear (NF)-kB, balanço entre citocinas pró- e anti-inflamatórias, redução no acúmulo de neutrófilos, melhora na integridade intestinal e função mune celular, e aumento da expressão da proteína de choque térmico. Em conclusão, o uso de glutamina em altas doses e por via parenteral (>0,50 g/kg/dia) demonstrou ser benéfica em pacientes criticamente enfermos, embora os mecanismos fisiopatoló-gicos necessitam ser melhor elucidados.

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          Most cited references82

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          HSP70 stimulates cytokine production through a CD14-dependant pathway, demonstrating its dual role as a chaperone and cytokine.

          Here, we demonstrate a previously unknown function for the 70-kDa heat-shock protein (HSP70) as a cytokine. HSP70 bound with high affinity to the plasma membrane, elicited a rapid intracellular calcium flux, activated nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB and upregulated the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1beta and IL-6 in human monocytes. Furthermore, two different signal transduction pathways were activated by exogenous HSP70: one dependent on CD14 and intracellular calcium, which resulted in increased IL-1beta, IL-6 and TNF-alpha; and the other independent of CD14 but dependent on intracellular calcium, which resulted in an increase in TNF-alpha but not IL-1beta or IL-6. These findings indicate that CD14 is a co-receptor for HSP70-mediated signaling in human monocytes and are indicative of an previously unrecognized function for HSP70 as an extracellular protein with regulatory effects on human monocytes, having a dual role as chaperone and cytokine.
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            Has mortality from acute respiratory distress syndrome decreased over time?: A systematic review.

            It is commonly stated that mortality from acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) and acute lung injury (ALI) is decreasing. To systematically review the literature assessing ARDS mortality over time and to determine patient- and study-level factors independently associated with mortality. We searched multiple databases (MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, Cochrane CENTRAL) for prospective observational studies or randomized controlled trials (RCTs) published during the period 1984 to 2006 that enrolled 50 or more patients with ALI/ARDS and reported mortality. We pooled mortality estimates using random-effects meta-analysis and examined mortality trends before and after 1994 (when a consensus definition of ALI/ARDS was published) and factors associated with mortality using meta-regression models. Of 4,966 studies, 89 met inclusion criteria (53 observational, 36 RCTs). There was a total of 18,900 patients (mean age 51.6 years; 39% female). Overall pooled weighted mortality was 44.3% (95% confidence interval [CI], 41.8-46.9). Mortality decreased with time in observational studies conducted before 1994; no temporal associations with mortality were demonstrated in RCTs (any time) or observational studies (after 1994). Pooled mortality from 1994 to 2006 was 44.0% (95% CI, 40.1-47.5) for observational studies, and 36.2% (95% CI, 32.1-40.5) for RCTs. Meta-regression identified study type (observational versus RCT, odds ratio, 1.36; 95% CI, 1.08-1.73) and patient age (odds ratio per additional 10 yr, 1.27; 95% CI, 1.07-1.50) as the only factors associated with mortality. A decrease in ARDS mortality was only seen in observational studies from 1984 to 1993. Mortality did not decrease between 1994 (when a consensus definition was published) and 2006, and is lower in RCTs than observational studies.
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              Roles of the heat shock transcription factors in regulation of the heat shock response and beyond.

              The heat shock response, characterized by increased expression of heat shock proteins (Hsps) is induced by exposure of cells and tissues to extreme conditions that cause acute or chronic stress. Hsps function as molecular chaperones in regulating cellular homeostasis and promoting survival. If the stress is too severe, a signal that leads to programmed cell death, apoptosis, is activated, thereby providing a finely tuned balance between survival and death. In addition to extracellular stimuli, several nonstressful conditions induce Hsps during normal cellular growth and development. The enhanced heat shock gene expression in response to various stimuli is regulated by heat shock transcription factors (HSFs). After the discovery of the family of HSFs (i.e., murine and human HSF1, 2, and 4 and a unique avian HSF3), the functional relevance of distinct HSFs is now emerging. HSF1, an HSF prototype, and HSF3 are responsible for heat-induced Hsp expression, whereas HSF2 is refractory to classical stressors. HSF4 is expressed in a tissue-specific manner; similar to HSF1 and HSF2, alternatively spliced isoforms add further complexity to its regulation. Recently developed powerful genetic models have provided evidence for both cooperative and specific functions of HSFs that expand beyond the heat shock response. Certain specialized functions of HSFs may even include regulation of novel target genes in response to distinct stimuli.

                Author and article information

                Journal
                aabc
                Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências
                An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc.
                Academia Brasileira de Ciências (Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil )
                0001-3765
                1678-2690
                June 2010
                : 82
                : 2
                : 417-430
                Affiliations
                [01] Rio de Janeiro RJ orgnameUniversidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro orgdiv1Instituto de Biofísica orgdiv2Centro de Ciências da Saúde Brasil
                [02] Varese orgnameUniversity of Insubria orgdiv1Department of Ambient, Health and Safety Italy
                Article
                S0001-37652010000200018 S0001-3765(10)08200218
                10.1590/S0001-37652010000200018
                9e175587-8168-4b1f-a459-47efcdbb6ae4

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

                History
                : 22 May 2009
                : 07 July 2009
                Page count
                Figures: 0, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 81, Pages: 14
                Product

                SciELO Brazil

                Categories
                Biomedical and Medical Sciences

                cytokines,proteína de choque término,apoptose,citocinas,glutamina,heat shock protein,apoptosis,glutamine

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