United Nations (UN)
Origin and Aims
The United Nations is an association of states, or intergovernmental organizations,
pledged to maintain international peace and security and to co-operate in solving
international political, economic, social, cultural and humanitarian problems. The
name ‘United Nations’ was devised by US President Franklin D. Roosevelt and was first
used in the Declaration by United Nations of 1 Jan. 1942, during the Second World
War, when 26 nations pledged to continue fighting the Axis Powers.
The United Nations Charter was drawn up by the representatives of 50 countries at
the United Nations Conference on International Organization, which met in San Francisco
from 25 April to 26 June 1945. Delegates started with proposals worked out by the
representatives of China, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States
at Dumbarton Oaks (Washington, D.C.) from 21 Aug. to 28 Sept. 1944. The Charter was
signed on 26 June 1945 by the representatives of the 50 countries. Poland, which was
not represented at the Conference, signed later and became one of the original 51
member states. The United Nations came into existence officially on 24 Oct. 1945,
with the deposit of the requisite number of ratifications of the Charter with the
US Department of State. United Nations Day is celebrated on 24 Oct.
In recent years, most of the UN’s work has been devoted to helping developing countries.
Major goals include the protection of human rights; saving children from starvation
and disease; providing relief assistance to refugees and disaster victims; countering
global crime, drugs and disease; and assisting countries devastated by war and the
long-term threat of landmines.
Members
New member states are admitted by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the
Security Council. The Charter provides for the suspension or expulsion of a member
for violation of its principles, but no such action has ever been taken. The UN has
193 member states, comprising every internationally recognized sovereign state, with
the exception of the Holy See. (For a list of these, see below.)
Finance
Contributions from member states constitute the main source of funds. These are in
accordance with a scale specified by the Assembly, and determined primarily by the
country’s share of the world economy and ability to pay, in the range 0·001%–22·000%.
The Organization is prohibited by law from borrowing from commercial institutions.
A Working Group on the Financial Situation of the United Nations was established in
1994 to address the long-standing financial crisis caused by non-payment of assessed
dues by many member states. Unpaid assessed contributions stood at US$1·6bn. as of
30 April 2018.
Official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.
Structure
The UN has five principal organs established by the founding Charter (formerly six).
All have their headquarters in New York except the International Court of Justice,
which has its seat in The Hague. These core bodies work through dozens of related
agencies, operational programmes and funds, and through special agreements with separate,
autonomous, intergovernmental agencies, known as Specialized Agencies, to provide
a programme of action in the fields of peace and security, justice and human rights,
humanitarian assistance, and social and economic development. The five principal UN
organs are:
1. The General Assembly
The General Assembly, composed of all members, with each member having one vote. Meeting
once a year, proceedings begin on the Tuesday of the third week of Sept. The 73rd
Session opened on 17 Sept. 2019.
At least three months before the start of each session, the Assembly elects a new
President, 21 Vice-Presidents and the chairs of its six main committees, listed below.
To ensure equitable geographical representation, the presidency of the Assembly rotates
each year among the five geographical groups of states: Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe,
Latin America and the Caribbean, and Western Europe and other States. Special sessions
may be convoked by the Secretary-General if requested by the Security Council, by
a majority of members, or by one member if the majority of the members concur. Emergency
sessions may be called within 24 hours at the request of the Security Council on the
vote of any nine Council members, or a majority of United Nations members, or one
member if the majority of members concur. Decisions on important questions, such as
peace and security, new membership and budgetary matters, require a two-thirds majority;
other questions require a simple majority of members present and voting.
The work of the General Assembly is divided between six Main Committees, on which
every member state is represented: the Disarmament and International Security Committee
(First Committee); the Economic and Financial Committee (Second Committee); the Social,
Humanitarian and Cultural Committee (Third Committee); the Special Political and Decolonization
Committee (Fourth Committee); the Administrative and Budgetary Committee (Fifth Committee);
and the Legal Committee (Sixth Committee).
There is also a General Committee charged with the task of co-ordinating the proceedings
of the Assembly and its Committees, and a Credentials Committee, which examines the
credentials of representatives of Member States. The General Committee consists of
28 members: the President and 21 Vice-Presidents of the General Assembly and the chairs
of the six main committees. The Credentials Committee consists of nine members appointed
by the Assembly on the proposal of the President at each session. In addition, the
Assembly has a number of subsidiary organs, divided into Boards (of which there were
7 in Jan. 2019), Commissions (7), Committees (31), Assemblies and Councils (4) and
Working Groups, etc. (16).
The General Assembly has the right to discuss any matters within the scope of the
Charter and, with the exception of any situation or dispute on the agenda of the Security
Council, may make recommendations accordingly. Occupying a central position in the
UN, the Assembly receives reports from other organs, admits new members, directs activities
for development, sets policies and determines programmes for the Secretariat and approves
the UN budget. The Assembly appoints the Secretary-General, who reports annually to
it on the work of the Organization.
Under the ‘Uniting For Peace’ resolution (377) adopted by the General Assembly in
Nov. 1950, the Assembly is also empowered to take action if the Security Council,
because of a lack of unanimity of its permanent members, fails to exercise its primary
responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security in any case
where there appears to be a threat to the peace, breach of the peace or act of aggression.
In this event, the General Assembly may consider the matter immediately with a view
to making appropriate recommendations to members for collective measures, including,
in the case of a breach of the peace or act of aggression, the use of armed force
to maintain or restore international peace and security.
The first Emergency Special Session of the Assembly was called in 1956 during the
Suez Crisis by Yugoslavia, which cited Resolution 377; demands were made for the withdrawal
of British, French and Israeli troops from Egypt. On the Assembly’s recommendations,
the United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF I) was formed as the UN’s first armed peacekeeping
force.
Over the years a number of programmes and funds have been established to address particular
humanitarian and development concerns. These bodies usually report to the General
Assembly. They include: the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF); Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR); United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development (UNCTAD); United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Population
Fund (UNFPA); United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); United Nations World Food
Programme (WFP); United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC).
Website:
http://www.un.org/ga
President: Tijjani Muhammad-Bande (Nigeria) was elected President for the 74th Session
in 2019.
2. The Security Council
The Security Council has primary responsibility for the maintenance of international
peace and security. Under the Charter, the Security Council alone has the power to
take decisions that member states are obligated to carry out. A representative of
each of its members must be present at all times at UN Headquarters, but it may meet
elsewhere as best facilitates its work.
The Presidency of the Council rotates monthly, according to the English alphabetical
order of members’ names. The Council consists of 15 members: five permanent and ten
non-permanent elected for a two-year term by a two-thirds majority of the General
Assembly. Each member has one vote. Retiring members are not eligible for immediate
re-election. Any other member of the United Nations may participate without a vote
in the discussion of questions specially affecting its interests.
Decisions on procedural questions are made by an affirmative vote of at least nine
members. On all other matters, the affirmative vote of nine members must include the
concurring votes of all permanent members (subject to the provision that when the
Council is considering methods for the peaceful settlement of a dispute, parties to
the dispute abstain from voting). Consequently, a negative vote from a permanent member
has the power of veto. If a permanent member does not support a decision but does
not wish to veto it, it may abstain. From 1945–91 the USSR employed its veto 119 times,
the USA 69 times, the UK 32 times, France 18 times and China three times (including
once before the People’s Republic of China took over Taiwan’s seat at the UN in 1971).
From 1992–Jan. 2020 the Russian Federation vetoed 25 resolutions, the USA 16 and China
13; France and the UK did not veto any resolutions.
According to Article 29 of the United Nations Charter, the Security Council can establish
subsidiary bodies as needed for the performance of its functions. All existing committees
and working groups consist of the 15 members of the Council. The mandate of subsidiary
organs, whether they are committees or working groups, can cover procedural matters
or substantive issues.
Committees include a Counter-Terrorism Committee established in the wake of the Sept.
2001 attacks in the USA, a Non-Proliferation Committee and a Military Staff Committee.
There are also sanctions committees, standing committees and ad hoc bodies. In addition
the Security Council has responsibility for peacekeeping operations and political
missions, as well as international courts and tribunals. The Peacebuilding Commission,
acting as an advisory body, supports peace efforts in countries emerging from conflict.
The Council also makes recommendations to the Assembly on the appointment of the Secretary-General
and, with the Assembly, elects the judges of the International Court of Justice.
Peacekeeping
The Charter contains no explicit provisions for peacekeeping operations (PKOs), yet
they have the highest profile of all the UN’s operations. PKOs are associated with
humanitarian intervention though their emergence was primarily a result of the failure
of the Charter’s collective security system during the Cold War and the absence of
a UN Force. The end of the Cold War and the rise of intra-state conflict led to a
proliferation of PKOs from the late 1980s and a greater proportion of armed missions.
However, notable failures in the early and mid-1990s, such as the missions to Somalia
in 1993 and to Rwanda in 1994, account for a drop in PKOs and shorter mandates. In
1992 then Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali presented the ‘Agenda for Peace’,
which laid out four phases to prevent or end conflict: preventative diplomacy; peacemaking
with civilian and military means; peacekeeping, in its traditional sense of operations
in the field; and post-conflict peace-building, an area seen as comparatively neglected
in previous missions. The then Secretary-General Kofi Annan presented a report aimed
at conflict prevention in July 2001 emphasizing inter-agency co-operation and long-term
strategies to prevent regional instability. There have been 72 peacekeeping operations
in total since 1948. The first mission—consisting of unarmed observers—was to monitor
the ceasefire during the First Arab–Israeli War.
Recent History
In Nov. 2002 the Security Council held Iraq in ‘material breach’ of disarmament obligations.
Weapons inspectors, led by Hans Blix (Sweden), returned to Iraq four years after their
last inspections. Amid suspicion that Iraq was failing to comply, the USA, the UK
and Spain reserved the right to disarm Iraq without a further Security Council resolution.
Other Council members, notably China, France, Germany and Russia, opposed such action.
In April 2003 US forces, supported by the UK, brought an end to Saddam Hussein’s rule.
In June 2004 the UN recognized the transfer of sovereignty to the interim government
of Iraq. In 2005 the Council referred cases to the International Criminal Court (ICC)
for the first time, asking the court to investigate the situation in Darfur, Sudan.
Instability in Sudan saw the establishment of peacekeeping missions in Darfur (2007),
the disputed Abyei region and newly independent South Sudan (both 2011). Other peacekeeping
missions established in recent years have included Liberia (2003), Côte d’Ivoire (2004),
Haiti (2004), Timor-Leste (2006), Democratic Republic of the Congo (2010), Libya (2011),
Mali (2013), the Central African Republic (2014) and, again, Haiti (2017). In April
2012 the Security Council established a mission in Syria to monitor the cessation
of armed violence and to oversee a UN–League of Arab States six-point peace plan.
However, with continuing violence obstructing implementation of the mandate, the mission
was ended in Aug. 2012. While UN sanctions have been tightened against North Korea
in response to weapons tests carried out by Pyongyang, those against Iran were lifted
in Jan. 2016 following implementation of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action limiting
Iran’s nuclear development activities. In 2015 the UN launched the Sustainable Development
Goals agenda, comprising 17 specific targets to be achieved over 15 years, designed
as a successor programme to the Millennium Development Goals. In Jan. 2017 António
Guterres took office as the UN’s Secretary-General. In Nov. that year the UN imposed
its strongest sanctions to date on North Korea in response to Pyongyang’s continued
nuclear testing programme. A month later the UN General Assembly supported a non-binding
resolution effectively rejecting the USA’s recognition of Jerusalem as the capital
of Israel. In Aug. 2018 the UN issued a report on military atrocities against Myanmar’s
Muslim Rohingya minority in 2017 that called for the investigation and prosecution
of the country’s senior generals for genocide.
Reform
The composition of the Security Council, with its five permanent members having qualified
as the principal Second World War victors, has been subject to intense debate in recent
years. The lack of permanent representation from Latin America and the Caribbean or
from Africa and the Islamic World is frequently cited to demonstrate that the Council
is unrepresentative. However, reform is in the hands of the permanent members and
a unanimous agreement has proved elusive. In Sept. 2004 Brazil, Germany, India and
Japan (the G4) launched a joint bid for permanent membership, along with a seat for
an African state. In March 2005 then Secretary-General Annan proposed either six new
permanent members and three new non-permanent members or the election of a new type
of member, eight of which would be elected for a four-year period. The World Summit
in Sept. 2005 failed to agree on Security Council reform but pledged to continue negotiations.
Permanent Members
China, France, Russian Federation, UK, USA (Russian Federation took over the seat
of the former USSR in Dec. 1991).
Non-Permanent Members
Belgium, Dominican Republic, Germany, Indonesia and South Africa (until 31 Dec. 2020);
Estonia, Niger, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Tunisia and Vietnam (until 31 Dec.
2021).
Finance
The budget for UN peacekeeping operations in 2018–19 was US$6·7bn.
3. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) is responsible under the General Assembly
for co-ordinating international economic, social, cultural, educational, health and
related matters.
The Council consists of 54 member states elected by a two-thirds majority of the General
Assembly for a three-year term. Members are elected according to the following geographic
distribution: Africa, 14 members; Asia, 11; Eastern Europe, 6; Latin America and Caribbean,
10; Western Europe and other States, 13. A third of the members retire each year.
Retiring members are eligible for immediate re-election. Each member has one vote.
Decisions are made by a majority of the members present and voting.
The Council holds one five-week substantive session a year, alternating between New
York and Geneva, and one organizational session in New York. The substantive session
includes a high-level meeting attended by Ministers, to discuss economic and social
issues. Special sessions may be held if required. The President is elected for one
year and is eligible for immediate re-election.
The subsidiary machinery of ECOSOC includes:
Eight Functional Commissions
Statistical Commission; Commission on Population and Development; Commission for Social
Development; Commission on the Status of Women; Commission on Narcotic Drugs (and
Subcommission on Illicit Drug Traffic and Related Matters in the Near and Middle East);
Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice; Commission on Science and Technology
for Development; United Nations Forum on Forests.
Five Regional Economic Commissions
ECA (Economic Commission for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia); ESCAP (Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok, Thailand); ECE (Economic Commission
for Europe, Geneva, Switzerland); ECLAC (Economic Commission for Latin America and
the Caribbean, Santiago, Chile); ESCWA (Economic Commission for Western Asia, Beirut,
Lebanon).
Three Standing Committees
Committee for Programme and Co-ordination; Commission on Non-Governmental Organizations;
Committee on Negotiations with Intergovernmental Agencies.
In addition, the Council may consult international non-governmental organizations
(NGOs) and, after consultation with the member concerned, with national organizations.
Over 3,000 organizations have consultative status. NGOs may send observers to ECOSOC’s
public meetings and those of its subsidiary bodies, and may submit written statements
relevant to its work. They may also consult with the UN Secretariat on matters of
mutual concern. The term of office of the members listed below expires on 31 Dec.
of each year.
Members
Angola (2021), Armenia (2021), Australia (2022), Bangladesh (2022), Belarus (2020),
Benin (2022), Botswana (2022), Brazil (2021), Canada (2021), China (2022), Colombia
(2022), Republic of the Congo (2022), Ecuador (2020), Egypt (2021), El Salvador (2020),
Ethiopia (2021), Finland (2022), France (2020), Gabon (2022), Germany (2020), Ghana
(2020), India (2020), Iran (2021), Ireland (2020), Jamaica (2021), Japan (2020), Kenya
(2021), South Korea (2022), Latvia (2022), Luxembourg (2021), Malaŵi (2020), Mali
(2021), Malta (2020), Mexico (2020), Montenegro (2022), Morocco (2020), Netherlands
(2021), Nicaragua (2022), Norway (2022), Pakistan (2021), Panama (2022), Paraguay
(2021), Philippines (2020), Russian Federation (2022), Saudi Arabia (2021), Spain
(2020), Sudan (2020), Switzerland (2022), Thailand (2022), Togo (2020), Turkmenistan
(2021), Ukraine (2021), USA (2021), Uruguay (2020).
4. The International Court of Justice (ICJ)
The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the UN.
It has a dual role: to settle in accordance with international law the legal disputes
submitted to it by States; and to give opinions on legal questions referred to it
by authorized international organs and agencies. Also known as the ‘World Court’,
it is the only court of a universal character with general jurisdiction.
The Court operates under a Statute of the United Nations Charter. Only States may
apply to and appear before the court. The Court is composed of 15 judges, each of
a different nationality, elected by an absolute majority by the General Assembly and
the Security Council to nine-year terms of office. The composition of the Court must
reflect the main forms of civilization and principal legal systems of the world. For
a number of years the composition of the Court has maintained the following geographical
balance: five seats on the bench are occupied by judges from Western Europe and other
western states, three seats are occupied by African judges, three by Asian judges,
two by judges from Eastern Europe and two by judges from Latin America. Elections
are held every three years for one-third of the seats; retiring judges may be re-elected.
Judges do not represent their respective governments but sit as independent magistrates.
They must have the qualifications required in their respective countries for appointment
to the highest judicial offices, or be jurists of recognized competence in international
law. Candidates are nominated by the national panels of jurists in the Permanent Court
of Arbitration (PCA) established by The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907. The Court
elects its own President and Vice-President for a three-year term, and is permanently
in session.
Decisions are taken by a majority of judges present, subject to a quorum of nine members,
with the President having a casting vote. Judgment is final and without appeal, but
a revision may be applied for within ten years from the date of the judgment on the
ground of new decisive evidence. When the Court does not include a judge of the nationality
of a State party to a case, that State has the right to appoint a judge ad hoc for
that case. While the Court normally sits in plenary session, it can form chambers
of three or more judges to deal with specific matters. Judgments by chambers are considered
as rendered by the full Court.
Judges
The nine-year terms of office of the judges currently serving end on 5 Feb. of each
year indicated: Abdulqawi A. Yusuf, President (Somalia, 2027); Xue Hanqin, Vice-President
(China, 2021); Ronny Abraham (France, 2027); Mohamed Bennouna (Morocco, 2024); Dalveer
Bhandari (India, 2027); Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade (Brazil, 2027); James Crawford
(Australia, 2024); Joan E. Donoghue (USA, 2024); Giorgio Gaja (Italy, 2021); Kirill
Gevorgian (Russia, 2024); Yuji Iwasawa (Japan, 2021); Patrick L. Robinson (Jamaica,
2024); Nawaf Salam (Lebanon, 2027); Julia Sebutinde (Uganda, 2021); Peter Tomka (Slovakia,
2021).
Competence and Jurisdiction
In contentious cases, only States may apply to or appear before the Court. The conditions
under which the Court will be open to non-member states are laid down by the Security
Council. The jurisdiction of the Court covers all matters that parties refer to it
and all matters provided for in the Charter or in treaties and conventions in force.
Disputes concerning the jurisdiction of the Court are settled by the Court’s own decision.
The Court may apply in its decision:
international conventions;
international custom;
the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations;
as subsidiary means for the determination of the rules of law, judicial decisions
and the teachings of highly qualified publicists. If the parties agree, the Court
may decide a case ex aequo et bono.
Since 1946 the Court has delivered 148 judgments on disputes concerning inter alia
land frontiers and maritime boundaries, territorial sovereignty, the use of force,
interference in the internal affairs of States, diplomatic relations, hostage-taking,
the right of asylum, nationality, guardianship, rights of passage and economic rights.
The Court may also give advisory opinions on legal questions referred to it by the
General Assembly, the Security Council, other duly authorized UN organs and agencies
of the UN system.
Since 1946 the Court has given 28 advisory opinions, concerning inter alia admission
to United Nations membership, reparation for injuries suffered in the service of the
United Nations, the territorial status of South-West Africa (Namibia) and Western
Sahara, expenses of certain United Nations operations, the status of human rights
informers, the threat or use of nuclear weapons and legal consequences of the construction
of a wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory.
Finance
Parties before the Court are not required to pay fees or administrative or linguistic
costs, since these are borne by the UN. The only expenses incurred by States parties
to cases before the ICJ are the fees of their counsel and advocates. States that would,
however, experience financial difficulties may apply to the Trust Fund set up in 1989
by the Secretary-General of the UN. The Court’s budget for the biennium 2016–17 was
US$45·8m.
Official languages: French and English.
Headquarters: Peace Palace, Carnegieplein 2, 2517 KJ The Hague, Netherlands.
Website:
http://www.icj-cij.org
Registrar: Philippe Couvreur (Belgium).
5. The Secretariat
The Secretariat services the other four organs of the UN, carrying out their programmes,
providing administrative support and information. It has a staff of 6,400 at the UN
Headquarters in New York and a further 33,700 at other duty stations around the world.
At its head is the Secretary-General, appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation
of the Security Council for a five-year, renewable term. The Secretary-General acts
as chief administrative officer in all meetings of the General Assembly, Security
Council and Economic and Social Council. An Office of Internal Oversight, established
in 1994 under the tenure of former Secretary-General Boutros Boutros-Ghali (Egypt),
pursues a cost-saving mandate to investigate and eliminate waste, fraud and mismanagement
within the system. The Secretary-General is assisted by Under-Secretaries-General
and Assistant Secretaries-General. A new position of Deputy Secretary-General was
agreed by the General Assembly in Dec. 1997 to assist in the running of the Secretariat
and to raise the economic, social and development profile of the UN. Peacekeeping
operations (PKOs) are chiefly run by Secretariat officials, who present a report to,
and are authorized by, the Security Council.
Finance
The financial year coincides with the calendar year. The budget for the two-year period
2018–19 was US$5·40bn.
Headquarters: United Nations Plaza, New York, NY 10017, USA.
Website:
http://www.un.org
Secretary-General: António Guterres (in office since 1 Jan. 2017, Portugal).
Deputy Secretary-General: Amina J. Mohammed (in office since 1 Jan. 2017, Nigeria).
Secretaries-General since 1945
1945–46
UK
Gladwyn Jebb (acting)
1946–52
Norway
Trygve Halvdan Lie
1953–61
Sweden
Dag Hammarskjöld
1961–71
Burma
Sithu U Thant
1972–81
Austria
Kurt Waldheim
1982–91
Peru
Javier Pérez de Cuéllar
1992–96
Egypt
Boutros Boutros-Ghali
1997–2006
Ghana
Kofi Atta Annan
2007–16
South Korea
Ban Ki-moon
2017–
Portugal
António Guterres
The Trusteeship Council
was one of the principal organs, but has been inactive since 1994. It was established
to ensure that governments responsible for administering Trust Territories take adequate
steps to prepare them for self-government or independence. It consisted of the five
permanent members of the Security Council. The task of decolonization was completed
in 1994, when the Security Council terminated the Trusteeship Agreement for the last
of the original UN Trusteeships (Palau), administered by the USA. All Trust Territories
attained self-government or independence either as separate States or by joining neighbouring
independent countries. The Council formally suspended operations on 1 Nov. 1994 following
Palau’s independence. By a resolution adopted on 25 May 1994 the Council amended its
rules of procedure to drop the obligation to meet annually and agreed to meet as occasion
required.
The proposal from then Secretary-General Kofi Annan, in the second part of his reform
programme, in July 1997, was that it should be used as a forum to exercise their ‘trusteeship’
for the global commons, environment and resource systems. However, in his 2005 report,
In Larger Freedom, Annan called for the deletion of the Council from the UN Charter.
Current Leaders
António Guterres
Position
Secretary-General
Introduction
António Manuel de Oliveira Guterres took office as Secretary-General of the United
Nations on 1 Jan. 2017. Having served as Portugal’s prime minister from 1995–2002,
his UN appointment marked the first time that the position had been taken by a former
head of government.
Early Life
Guterres was born on 30 April 1949 in Lisbon. Between 1966 and 1972 he studied electronic
engineering at the capital’s Instituto Superior Técnico. A Catholic activist in the
Juventude Universitária Católica (1968–72), he joined the Socialist Party (Partido
Socialista; PS) during the 1974 revolution. He was a participant in post-revolution
provisional governments and elected to the National Assembly in 1976, serving in the
ministry of economics and finance until 1979. A member of the committee on European
integration, which negotiated Portugal’s entry into the European Union in 1986, he
returned to domestic politics the following year. Aiming to strengthen the PS in opposition,
he promoted centrist policies and in 1992 he succeeded President Jorge Sampaio as
party leader.
In the 1995 elections Guterres was elected prime minister with 43·9% of votes, ending
ten years of rule by the centre-right Social Democrats (Partido Social Democrata;
PSD). Winning with a centrist manifesto, he pledged to concentrate on social welfare,
education and crime. He also planned a strict budgetary policy to prepare Portugal
for adoption of the European single currency. In his first term, investment increased,
public services and transport were improved and unemployment fell to 5%. Portugal
adopted the single currency in 1999.
In Oct. 1999 Guterres was re-elected prime minister with 44·1% of votes while the
PS’s parliamentary representation increased from 112 to 115 seats, although still
short of an absolute majority. The following month he was also elected chairman of
the Socialist International, having previously served a seven-year term as the organization’s
vice president.
In 2000 a 10% increase in international oil prices and concerns over rising crime
levels led to public discontent and the opposition mounted an unsuccessful no-confidence
vote in parliament. Portugal had meanwhile taken over the EU presidency in the first
half of the year. Guterres promoted a policy of encouraging greater labour mobility
within the Union and in 2001 he called for more power for the European Commission
and the European Parliament. Domestically, increased public spending caused economic
problems and opposition politicians criticized the €400m. to be spent on hosting the
Euro 2004 football tournament. In Dec. 2001 Guterres resigned as prime minister and
called early elections.
In 2002 the PSD leader, José Manuel Durão Barroso, replaced him as prime minister.
Guterres continued in his role as president of the Socialist International until 2006,
while in June 2005 he became High Commissioner for Refugees at the United Nations.
His ten years as head of that agency coincided with a series of refugee crises, including
in Syria, Iraq and Afghanistan, and he was outspoken in his calls for Western countries
to offer greater assistance to migrants. In Feb. 2016 he submitted his nomination
as Portugal’s candidate for the role of UN Secretary-General. After a strong performance
in public hearings at the General Assembly, he was elected to the position in Oct.
2016 and took office on 1 Jan. 2017.
Career in Office
Guterres was elected despite expectations that the UN would appoint its first female
Secretary-General. Against that backdrop, he nominated Amina J. Mohammed of Nigeria
as deputy Secretary-General and she assumed office on the same day. On taking office
Guterres appealed for 2017 to be a year for peace. However, in a depressing appraisal
at the end of the year he warned that ‘unfortunately, in fundamental ways, the world
has gone in reverse… conflicts have deepened and new dangers have emerged’. Alluding
to the crisis over North Korea’s nuclear and missile tests, he said that global anxieties
about nuclear weapons were the highest since the Cold War, while adding that climate
change was accelerating, inequalities were growing and that there had been horrific
violations of human rights. He concluded: ‘As we begin 2018, I call for unity… We
can settle conflicts, overcome hatred and defend shared values. But we can only do
that together.’
One year on, while acknowledging some reasons for optimism such as a rapprochement
between Ethiopia and Eritrea and tentative peace talks in the conflicts in Yemen and
South Sudan, Guterres again issued a gloomy global assessment: ‘Last New Year, I issued
a red alert, and the dangers I mentioned still persist... Climate change is running
faster than we are. Geopolitical divisions are deepening... and record numbers of
people are moving in search of safety and protection. Inequality is growing. And people
are questioning a world in which a handful of people hold the same wealth as half
of humanity.᾿ He nevertheless maintained that the United Nations would ‘resolve to
confront threats, defend human dignity and build a better future—together’.
At the end of 2019, as the UN prepared to celebrate its 75th anniversary amid continuing
uncertainty and insecurity, Guterres stressed that young people were the world’s greatest
source of hope. ‘We are launching a decade of Action for the Sustainable Development
Goals—our blueprint for a fair globalization—for the success of which young people’s
help is needed... From climate action to gender inequality to social justice and human
rights, [young people] are on the frontlines and in the headlines... and rightly demanding
a role in shaping the future’. He also criticized the failure of national delegates
to the UN conference in Madrid, Spain, in Dec. 2019 to meaningfully address the climate
change emergency. ‘The point of no return is no longer over the horizon.’ Also in
Dec. 2019 Guterres visited Pope Francis in the Vatican where they discussed the process
of implementing the Sustainable Development Goals and also the crisis of multilateralism
evident in the difficulties in tackling problems such as migration and human trafficking,
climate change and disarmament.
Member States of the UN
The 193 member states, with percentage scale of contributions to the Regular Budget
in 2019 and year of admission:
% contribution
Year of admission
Afghanistan
0·007
1946
Albania
0·008
1955
Algeria
0·138
1962
Andorra
0·005
1993
Angola
0·010
1976
Antigua and Barbuda
0·002
1981
Argentina
1
0·915
1945
Armenia
0·007
1992
Australia
1
2·210
1945
Austria
0·677
1955
Azerbaijan
0·049
1992
The Bahamas
0·018
1973
Bahrain
0·050
1971
Bangladesh
0·010
1974
Barbados
0·007
1966
Belarus
1, 2
0·049
1945
Belgium
1
0·821
1945
Belize
0·001
1981
Benin
0·003
1960
Bhutan
0·001
1971
Bolivia
1
0·016
1945
Bosnia and Herzegovina
3
0·012
1992
Botswana
0·014
1966
Brazil
1
2·948
1945
Brunei
0·025
1984
Bulgaria
0·046
1955
Burkina Faso
0·003
1960
Burundi
0·001
1962
Cabo Verde
0·001
1975
Cambodia
0·006
1955
Cameroon
0·013
1960
Canada
1
2·734
1945
Central African Rep.
0·001
1960
Chad
0·004
1960
Chile
1
0·407
1945
China
1
12·005
1945
Colombia
1
0·288
1945
Comoros
0·001
1975
Congo, Dem. Rep. of the
4
0·010
1960
Congo, Rep. of the
0·006
1960
Costa Rica
1
0·062
1945
Côte d’Ivoire
0·013
1960
Croatia
5
0·077
1992
Cuba
1
0·080
1945
Cyprus
0·036
1960
Czech Republic
6
0·311
1993
Denmark
1
0·554
1945
Djibouti
0·001
1977
Dominica
0·001
1978
Dominican Republic
1
0·053
1945
Ecuador
1
0·080
1945
Egypt
1, 7
0·186
1945
El Salvador
1
0·012
1945
Equatorial Guinea
0·016
1968
Eritrea
0·001
1993
Estonia
0·039
1991
Eswatini
0·002
1968
Ethiopia
1
0·010
1945
Fiji
0·003
1970
Finland
0·421
1955
France
1
4·427
1945
Gabon
0·015
1960
The Gambia
0·001
1965
Georgia
0·008
1992
Germany
8
6·090
1973
Ghana
0·015
1957
Greece
1
0·366
1945
Grenada
0·001
1974
Guatemala
1
0·036
1945
Guinea
0·003
1958
Guinea-Bissau
0·001
1974
Guyana
0·002
1966
Haiti
1
0·003
1945
Honduras
1
0·009
1945
Hungary
0·206
1955
Iceland
0·028
1946
India
1
0·834
1945
Indonesia
9
0·543
1950
Iran
1
0·398
1945
Iraq
1
0·129
1945
Ireland, Rep. of
0·371
1955
Israel
0·490
1949
Italy
3·307
1955
Jamaica
0·008
1962
Japan
8·564
1956
Jordan
0·021
1955
Kazakhstan
0·178
1992
Kenya
0·024
1963
Kiribati
0·001
1999
Korea, North
0·006
1991
Korea, South
2·267
1991
Kuwait
0·252
1963
Kyrgyzstan
0·002
1992
Laos
0·005
1955
Latvia
0·047
1991
Lebanon
1
0·047
1945
Lesotho
0·001
1966
Liberia
1
0·001
1945
Libya
0·030
1955
Liechtenstein
0·009
1990
Lithuania
0·071
1991
Luxembourg
1
0·067
1945
Madagascar
0·004
1960
Malaŵi
0·002
1964
Malaysia
10
0·341
1957
Maldives
0·004
1965
Mali
0·004
1960
Malta
0·017
1964
Marshall Islands
0·001
1991
Mauritania
0·002
1961
Mauritius
0·011
1968
Mexico
1
1·292
1945
Micronesia
0·001
1991
Moldova
0·003
1992
Monaco
0·011
1993
Mongolia
0·005
1961
Montenegro
11
0·004
2006
Morocco
0·055
1956
Mozambique
0·004
1975
Myanmar
12
0·010
1948
Namibia
0·009
1990
Nauru
0·001
1999
Nepal
0·007
1955
Netherlands
1
1·356
1945
New Zealand
1
0·291
1945
Nicaragua
1
0·005
1945
Niger
0·002
1960
Nigeria
0·250
1960
North Macedonia
5
0·007
1993
Norway
1
0·754
1945
Oman
0·115
1971
Pakistan
0·115
1947
Palau
0·001
1994
Panama
1
0·045
1945
Papua New Guinea
0·010
1975
Paraguay
1
0·016
1945
Peru
1
0·152
1945
Philippines
1
0·205
1945
Poland
1
0·802
1945
Portugal
0·350
1955
Qatar
0·282
1971
Romania
0·198
1955
Russia
1, 13
2·405
1945
Rwanda
0·003
1962
St Kitts and Nevis
0·001
1983
St Lucia
0·001
1979
St Vincent and the Grenadines
0·001
1980
Samoa
0·001
1976
San Marino
0·002
1992
São Tomé and Príncipe
0·001
1975
Saudi Arabia
1
1·172
1945
Senegal
0·007
1960
Serbia
1, 14, 15
0·028
1945
Seychelles
0·002
1976
Sierra Leone
0·001
1961
Singapore
16
0·485
1965
Slovakia
6
0·153
1993
Slovenia
5
0·076
1992
Solomon Islands
0·001
1978
Somalia
0·001
1960
South Africa
1
0·272
1945
South Sudan
0·006
2011
Spain
2·146
1955
Sri Lanka
0·044
1955
Sudan
0·010
1956
Suriname
0·005
1975
Sweden
0·906
1946
Switzerland
1·151
2002
Syria
1, 17
0·011
1945
Tajikistan
0·004
1992
Tanzania
18
0·010
1961
Thailand
0·307
1946
Timor-Leste
0·002
2002
Togo
0·002
1960
Tonga
0·001
1999
Trinidad and Tobago
0·040
1962
Tunisia
0·025
1956
Turkey
1
1·371
1945
Turkmenistan
0·033
1992
Tuvalu
0·001
2000
Uganda
0·008
1962
Ukraine
1
0·057
1945
United Arab Emirates
0·616
1971
UK
1
4·567
1945
USA
1
22·000
1945
Uruguay
1
0·087
1945
Uzbekistan
0·032
1992
Vanuatu
0·001
1981
Venezuela
1
0·728
1945
Vietnam
0·077
1977
Yemen
19
0·010
1947
Zambia
0·009
1964
Zimbabwe
0·005
1980
1
Original member.
2
As Byelorussia, 1945–91.
3
Pre-independence (1992) as part of Yugoslavia, which was an original member.
4
As Zaïre, 1960–97.
5
Pre-independence (1991) as part of Yugoslavia, which was an original member.
6
Pre-partition Czechoslovakia (1945–92) was an original member.
7
As United Arab Republic, 1958–71, following union with Syria (1958–61).
8
Pre-unification (1990) as two states: the Federal Republic of Germany and the German
Democratic Republic.
9
Withdrew temporarily, 1965–66.
10
As the Federation of Malaya till 1963, when the new federation of Malaysia (including
Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah) was formed.
11
Pre-independence (2006) as part of Yugoslavia, which was an original member, from
1945–2003 and Serbia and Montenegro from 2003–06.
12
As Burma, 1948–89.
13
As USSR, 1945–91.
14
As Yugoslavia, 1945–2003, and Serbia and Montenegro, 2003–06.
15
Excluded from the General Assembly in 1992; readmitted in Nov. 2000.
16
As part of Malaysia, 1963–65.
17
As United Arab Republic, by union with Egypt, 1958–61.
18
As two states: Tanganyika, 1961–64, and Zanzibar, 1963–64, prior to union as one republic
under new name.
19
As Yemen, 1947–90, and Democratic Yemen, 1967–90, prior to merger of the two.
The USA is the leading contributor to the Peacekeeping Operations Budget, with 27·8912%
of the total in 2019, followed by China (15·2197%), Japan (8·5640%), Germany (6·0900%),
UK (5·7900%), France (5·6125%), Italy (3·3070%) and Russia (3·0490%). All other countries
contribute less than 3%.
Publications
Yearbook of the United Nations. New York, 1947 ff.—UN Chronicle (quarterly).—Monthly
Bulletin of Statistics.—Resolutions and Decisions Adopted by the General Assembly
(annual; in three volumes).—Report of the Secretary-General of the United Nations
on the Work of the Organization. 1946 ff.—Charter of the United Nations and Statute
of the International Court of Justice.—Security Council: Index to Proceedings; Resolutions
and Decisions; Report.—Economic and Social Council: Index to Proceedings; Resolutions
and Decisions; Report.—Demographic Yearbook. New York, 1948 ff.—The United Nations
Today. New York, 2008.—Statistical Yearbook. New York, 1947 ff. (regional versions
for: Africa; Asia and the Pacific; Latin America and the Caribbean).—World Economic
and Social Survey. New York, 1947 ff.—Economic and Social Survey of Asia and the Pacific.
New York, 1946 ff.—Economic Survey of Latin America and the Caribbean. New York, 1948
ff.—Economic Survey of Europe. New York, 1948 ff.—Economic Development in Africa Report.
Geneva, 2000 ff.—International Trade Statistics Yearbook (annual; in two volumes).
1992 ff.—World Economic Situation and Prospects. 1999 ff.—Energy Statistics Yearbook.
1956 ff.—The United Nations Disarmament Yearbook. 1976 ff.—Review of Maritime Transport.
1968 ff.—World Statistics Pocketbook. 1976 ff.—World Youth Report (biennial), 2003
ff.—United Nations Reference Guide in the Field of Human Rights. UN Centre for Human
Rights, 1993.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
On 10 Dec. 1948 the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted and proclaimed
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Preamble
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights
of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace
in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted in barbarous acts which
have outraged the conscience of mankind, and the advent of a world in which human
beings shall enjoy freedom of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has
been proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last
resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human rights should be protected
by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter reaffirmed their faith
in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person and in the
equal rights of men and women and have determined to promote social progress and better
standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in co-operation with the
United Nations, the promotion of universal respect for and observance of human rights
and fundamental freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms is of the greatest importance
for the full realization of this pledge,
Now, Therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN
RIGHTS as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the
end that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this Declaration constantly
in mind, shall strive by teaching and education to promote respect for these rights
and freedoms and by progressive measures, national and international, to secure their
universal and effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of Member
States themselves and among the peoples of territories under their jurisdiction.
Article 1
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Article 2
Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration,
without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political
or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status. Furthermore,
no distinction shall be made on the basis of the political, jurisdictional or international
status of the country or territory to which a person belongs, whether it be independent,
trust, non-self-governing or under any other limitation of sovereignty.
Article 3
Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person.
Article 4
No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be
prohibited in all their forms.
Article 5
No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment.
Article 6
Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.
Article 7
All are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law. All are entitled to equal protection against any discrimination
in violation of this Declaration and against any incitement to such discrimination.
Article 8
Everyone has the right to an effective remedy by the competent national tribunals
for acts violating the fundamental rights granted him by the constitution or by law.
Article 9
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary arrest, detention or exile.
Article 10
Everyone is entitled in full equality to a fair and public hearing by an independent
and impartial tribunal, in the determination of his rights and obligations and of
any criminal charge against him.
Article 11
Everyone charged with a penal offence has the right to be presumed innocent until
proved guilty according to law in a public trial at which he has had all the guarantees
necessary for his defence.
No one shall be held guilty of any penal offence on account of any act or omission
which did not constitute a penal offence, under national or international law, at
the time when it was committed. Nor shall a heavier penalty be imposed than the one
that was applicable at the time the penal offence was committed.
Article 12
No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home
or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. Everyone has the
right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.
Article 13
Everyone has the right to freedom of movement and residence within the borders of
each state.
Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his
country.
Article 14
Everyone has the right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution.
This right may not be invoked in the case of prosecutions genuinely arising from non-political
crimes or from acts contrary to the purposes and principles of the United Nations.
Article 15
Everyone has the right to a nationality.
No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his nationality nor denied the right to change
his nationality.
Article 16
Men and women of full age, without any limitation due to race, nationality or religion,
have the right to marry and to found a family. They are entitled to equal rights as
to marriage, during marriage and at its dissolution.
Marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending
spouses.
The family is the natural and fundamental group unit of society and is entitled to
protection by society and the State.
Article 17
Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.
No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property.
Article 18
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right
includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in
community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief
in teaching, practice, worship and observance.
Article 19
Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom
to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information
and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.
Article 20
Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
No one may be compelled to belong to an association.
Article 21
Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or
through freely chosen representatives.
Everyone has the right of equal access to public service in his country.
The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will
shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and
equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures.
Article 22
Everyone, as a member of society, has the right to social security and is entitled
to realization, through national effort and international co-operation and in accordance
with the organization and resources of the State, of the economic, social and cultural
rights indispensable for his dignity and the free development of his personality.
Article 23
Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable
conditions of work and to protection against unemployment.
Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.
Everyone who works has the right to just and favourable remuneration ensuring for
himself and his family an existence worthy of human dignity, and supplemented, if
necessary, by other means of social protection.
Everyone has the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his
interests.
Article 24
Everyone has the right to rest and leisure, including reasonable limitation of working
hours and periodic holidays with pay.
Article 25
Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being
of himself and his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and
necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment,
sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances
beyond his control.
Motherhood and childhood are entitled to special care and assistance. All children,
whether born in or out of wedlock, shall enjoy the same social protection.
Article 26
Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary
and fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional
education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be equally
accessible to all on the basis of merit.
Education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and to
the strengthening of respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote
understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations, racial or religious groups,
and shall further the activities of the United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
Parents have a prior right to choose the kind of education that shall be given to
their children.
Article 27
Everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural life of the community,
to enjoy the arts and to share in scientific advancement and its benefits.
Everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting
from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.
Article 28
Everyone is entitled to a social and international order in which the rights and freedoms
set forth in this Declaration can be fully realized.
Article 29
Everyone has duties to the community in which alone the free and full development
of his personality is possible.
In the exercise of his rights and freedoms, everyone shall be subject only to such
limitations as are determined by law solely for the purpose of securing due recognition
and respect for the rights and freedoms of others and of meeting the just requirements
of morality, public order and the general welfare in a democratic society.
These rights and freedoms may in no case be exercised contrary to the purposes and
principles of the United Nations.
Article 30
Nothing in this Declaration may be interpreted as implying for any State, group or
person any right to engage in any activity or to perform any act aimed at the destruction
of any of the rights and freedoms set forth herein.
United Nations System
Programmes and Funds
Social and economic development, aimed at achieving a better life for people everywhere,
is a major part of the UN system of organizations. At the forefront of efforts to
bring about such progress is the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the
UN’s global development network. UNDP works with people at all levels of society to
help build nations that can withstand crisis, and drive and sustain the kind of growth
that improves the quality of life for everyone. In 2014 UNDP programmes helped: empower
people and build more resilient communities in 161 countries; create nearly 1m. jobs,
41% of them for women; strengthen livelihoods in low-income communities, benefitting
11·2m. people; combat climate change and mitigate its impacts in 140 countries; register
18m. new voters, including nearly 4m. in Afghanistan; train 2m. health workers to
fight HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria; improve energy access for 1·3m. people.
UNDP assistance is provided only at the request of governments and in response to
their priority needs, integrated into overall national and regional plans. Its activities
are funded entirely through voluntary contributions outside the regular UN budget.
80% of UNDP’s core programme resources go to low-income countries and Least Developed
Countries (LDCs), with more than 50% of UNDP’s core programme resources going to Africa.
Headquartered in New York, the UNDP is governed by a 36-member Executive Board, representing
both developing and developed countries.
In addition to its regular programmes, UNDP administers various special-purpose funds,
such as the UN Capital Development Fund (UNCDF), which offers a unique combination
of investment capital, capacity building and technical advisory services to promote
microfinance and local development in the LDCs and the United Nations Volunteers (UNV),
which is the UN focal point for promoting and harnessing volunteerism for effective
development. Together with the World Bank and the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), UNDP is one of the three implementing agencies of the Global Environment Facility
(GEF), the world’s largest fund for protecting the environment.
UNDP works with governments and local communities on their own solutions to global
and national development challenges. In each country office, the UNDP Resident Representative
normally also serves as the Resident Coordinator of development activities for the
UN system as a whole.
Administrator: Achim Steiner (Brazil/Germany).
United Nations development and humanitarian agencies include the United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF). It was established in 1946 by the United Nations General Assembly as
the United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund, to meet the emergency
needs of children of post-war Europe. In 1953 the organization became a permanent
part of the UN and its mandate was expanded to carry out long-term programmes to benefit
children worldwide. Guided by the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its Optional
Protocols and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women, UNICEF supports programmes to improve the wellbeing of children and women in
more than 150 countries and territories. UNICEF also provides relief and rehabilitation
assistance in emergencies.
UNICEF’s strategic plan for 2018–21 is rooted in the aim of realizing the rights of
every child, especially the most disadvantaged. UNICEF’s strategy to achieve this
incorporates several strands, including:
Every child survives and thrives
Every child learns
Every child is protected from violence and exploitation
Every child lives in a safe and clean environment
Every child has an equitable chance in life
UNICEF’s work in recent years has contributed to progress towards several Millennium
Development Goals, including the steady decline of under-five mortality; a reduction
in the number of primary-age out-of-school children; a decrease in the number of underweight
children aged under five; an increase in birth registration; sustainable access to
safe drinking water; and prevention of mother-to-child transmission and new infections
among young people of HIV.
Executive Director: Henrietta H. Fore (USA).
The United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) became operational in 1969 and is the leading
provider of United Nations assistance in the field of population. Its mandate is to
build the knowledge and the capacity to respond to needs in population and family
planning; to promote awareness in both developed and developing countries of population
problems and possible strategies to deal with these problems; to assist their population
problems in the forms and means best suited to the individual countries’ needs; to
assume a leading role in the United Nations system in promoting population programmes,
and to co-ordinate projects supported by the Fund.
UNFPA’s mission is to ensure that every pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe
and every young person’s potential is fulfilled. Since UNFPA started working in 1969
the number of women dying from complications of pregnancy or childbirth has been halved.
It works in more than 150 countries and territories that are home to the vast majority
of the world’s people. In 2015 UNFPA total gross contribution revenue was US$979∙5m.
Main programme expenses by focus area are: maternal and new-born health, 26∙2%; family
planning, 24∙6%; programme co-ordination and assistance, 10∙4%. UNFPA’s The State
of World Population is published annually.
Executive Director: Dr Natalia Kanem (Panama).
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), established in 1972, works to encourage
sustainable development through sound environmental practices everywhere. UNEP has
its headquarters in Nairobi, Kenya and regional offices in Bangkok, Geneva, Manama,
Panama City and Washington, D.C. Its activities cover a wide range of issues, from
atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems, to the promotion of environmental science and
information, to an early warning and emergency response capacity to deal with environmental
disasters and emergencies. UNEP’s present priorities include: environmental information,
assessment and research; enhanced co-ordination of environmental conventions and development
of policy instruments; fresh water; technology transfer and industry; and support
to Africa. Information networks and monitoring systems established by the UNEP include:
the Global Environment Information Exchange Network (INFOTERRA); Global Resource Information
Database (GRID); the International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals (IRPTC);
and the recent UNEP.net, a web-based interactive catalogue and multifaceted portal
that offers access to environmentally relevant geographic, textual and pictorial information.
In June 2000 the World Conservation and Monitoring Centre (WCMC) based in Cambridge,
UK became UNEP’s key biodiversity assessment centre. UNEP’s latest state-of-the-environment
report is Frontiers 2017: Emerging Issues of Environmental Concern.
Executive Director: Erik Solheim (Norway).
Other UN programmes working for development include: the UN Conference on Trade and
Development (UNCTAD), which promotes international trade, particularly by developing
countries, in an attempt to increase their participation in the global economy; and
the World Food Programme (WFP), the world’s largest international food aid organization,
which is dedicated to both emergency relief and development programmes.
The United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-Habitat), which assists over 600m.
people living in health-threatening housing conditions, was established in 1978. The
58-member Governing Council, Habitat’s governing body, meets every two years. The
Centre serves as the focal point for human settlements action and the co-ordination
of activities within the UN system.
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) educates the world about the
dangers of drug abuse; strengthens international action against drug production, trafficking
and drug related crime; promotes efforts to reduce drug abuse, particularly among
the young and vulnerable; builds local, national and international partnerships to
address drug issues; provides information, analysis and expertise on the drug issue;
promotes international co-operation in crime prevention and control; supports the
development of criminal justice systems; and assists member states in addressing the
challenges and threats posed by the changing nature of transnational organized crime.
Executive Director: Yury Fedotov (Russia).
The UN work in crime prevention and criminal justice aims to lessen the human and
material costs of crime and its impact on socio-economic development. The UN Congress
on the Prevention of Crime and Treatment of Offenders has convened every five years
since 1955 and provides a forum for the presentation of policies and progress. The
Thirteenth Crime Congress (Doha, 2015) had as its theme ‘Integrating crime prevention
and criminal justice into the wider United Nations agenda to address social and economic
challenges and to promote the rule of law at the national and international levels,
and public participation’. The Commission on Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice,
a functional body of ECOSOC, established in 1992, seeks to strengthen UN activities
in the field, and meets annually in Vienna. The interregional research and training
arm of the UN crime and criminal justice programme is the United Nations Interregional
Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) in Rome.
Humanitarian assistance to refugees and victims of natural and man-made disasters
is also an important function of the UN system. The main refugee organizations within
the system are the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
and the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near
East (UNRWA).
UNHCR was created in 1951 to resettle 1·2m. European refugees left homeless in the
aftermath of the Second World War. It was initially envisioned as a temporary office
with a projected lifespan of three years. However, in 2003, in a move to strengthen
UNHCR’s capacity to carry out its work more effectively, the General Assembly removed
the time limitation on the organization’s mandate and extended it indefinitely, until
‘the refugee problem is solved’. Today, with some 58·0m. persons of concern across
the globe, UNHCR has become one of the world’s principal humanitarian agencies. Its
Executive Committee currently comprises 98 member states. With its Headquarters in
Geneva, UNHCR has a national and international staff of 11,000 working in 130 countries.
The organization has twice been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. UNHCR is a subsidiary
organ of the United Nations General Assembly.
The work of UNHCR is humanitarian and non-political. International protection is its
primary function. Its main objective is to promote and safeguard the rights and interests
of refugees. In so doing UNHCR devotes special attention to promoting access to asylum
and seeks to improve the legal, material and physical safety of refugees in their
country of residence. Crucial to this status is the principle of non-refoulement,
which prohibits the expulsion from or forcible return of refugees to a country where
they may have reason to fear persecution. UNHCR pursues its objectives in the field
of protection by encouraging the conclusion of intergovernmental legal instruments
in favour of refugees, by supervising the implementation of their provisions and by
encouraging governments to adopt legislation and administrative procedures for the
benefit of refugees. UNHCR is often called upon to provide material assistance (e.g.
the provision of food, shelter, medical care and essential supplies) while durable
solutions are being sought. Durable solutions generally take one of three forms: voluntary
repatriation, local integration or resettlement in another country.
UNHCR co-operates both multilaterally and bilaterally with a wide range of partners
in order to fulfil its mandate for refugees and other people of concern to the Office.
Partners include UN co-ordination bodies, other UN agencies and departments, intergovernmental
organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), universities and research institutes,
regional organizations, foundations and corporate entities from the private sector,
as well as governments, host communities and refugee and other displaced population
representatives. In response to calls by the international community to improve the
global humanitarian response capacity, today UNHCR is playing an active role in the
inter-agency ‘cluster leadership approach’ with respect to protecting and assisting
internally displaced persons. UNHCR’s involvement is focused on conflict-generated
situations of internal displacement, where it leads the protection ‘cluster’, the
camp co-ordination and camp management ‘cluster’ and the emergency shelter ‘cluster’.
At present, UNHCR is funded almost entirely by voluntary contributions. In 2016 UNHCR’s
expenditure amounted to US$3·96bn.
High Commissioner: Filippo Grandi (Italy).
UNRWA was created by the General Assembly in 1949 as a temporary, non-political agency
to provide relief to the nearly 750,000 people who became refugees as a result of
the disturbances during and after the creation of the State of Israel in the former
British Mandate territory of Palestine. ‘Palestine refugees’, as defined by UNRWA’s
mandate, are persons or descendants of persons whose normal residence was Palestine
for at least two years prior to the 1948 conflict and who, as a result of the conflict,
lost their homes and means of livelihood. UNRWA has also been called upon to help
persons displaced by renewed hostilities in the Middle East in 1967. The situation
of Palestine refugees in south Lebanon, affected in the aftermath of the 1982 Israeli
invasion of Lebanon, was of special concern to the Agency in 1984. UNRWA provides
education, health, relief and social services to eligible refugees among the 4·8m.
registered Palestine refugees in its five fields of operation: Jordan, Lebanon, Syria,
the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Its mandate is renewed at intervals by the UN General
Assembly, and in Dec. 2019 was extended until 30 June 2023. The regular budget for
2015 amounted to US$743∙8m.
Commissioner-General: Pierre Krähenbühl (Switzerland).
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) represents the world’s
commitment to universal ideals of human dignity. The UN’s activities in the field
of human rights are the primary responsibility of the High Commissioner for Human
Rights, a post established in 1993 under the direction and authority of the Secretary-General.
The High Commissioner is nominated by the Secretary-General for a four-year term,
renewable once. The principal co-ordinating human rights organ of the UN was until
mid-2006 the 53-member Commission on Human Rights, set up by ECOSOC in 1946. On 15
March 2006 the UN General Assembly voted overwhelmingly to abolish the Commission
after it was criticized for having member countries with poor human rights records.
A 47-member Human Rights Council was established as its successor and held its first
session in June 2006. In June 2018 the USA withdrew from the Council, accusing the
organization of political bias.
High Commissioner: Michelle Bachelet (Chile).
Research and Training Institutes
There are six research and training institutes within the UN, all of them autonomous.
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR)
Established in 1980 to undertake research on disarmament and security with the aim
of assisting the international community in their disarmament thinking, decisions
and efforts. Through its research projects, publications, small meetings and expert
networks, UNIDIR promotes creative thinking and dialogue on both current and future
security issues, through examination of topics as varied as tactical nuclear weapons,
refugee security, computer warfare, regional confidence-building measures and small
arms.
Address: Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.unidir.org
United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)
Founded in 1965, UNITAR is the leading UN institute offering training on global and
strategic challenges. As an autonomous body within the UN system, UNITAR is led by
an Executive Director, governed by a Board of Trustees and is supported by voluntary
contributions from governments, intergovernmental organizations, foundations and the
private sector. With nearly 40,000 beneficiaries in 2015 the Institute provides short
executive training to national and local government officials of UN member states
and civil society representatives around the world. UNITAR aims to meet the growing
demand, especially from the least developed countries, for capacity development in
the fields of environment, peace, security and diplomacy, and governance.
Address: Palais des Nations, 1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.unitar.org
United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI)
Established in 1967 to support countries worldwide in crime prevention and criminal
justice, UNICRI offers technical co-operation, research and training at various levels
for governments and the international community as a whole. The institute particularly
focuses on security and counter-terrorism, counter-trafficking and preventing money
laundering.
Address: 10 Viale Maestri del Lavoro, 10127 Turin, Italy.
Website:
http://www.unicri.it
United Nations Research Institute for Social Development (UNRISD)
Established in 1963 to conduct multidisciplinary research into the social dimensions
of contemporary problems affecting development, it aims to provide governments, development
agencies, grassroots organizations and scholars with a better understanding of how
development policies and processes of economic, social and environmental change affect
different social groups.
Address: Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.unrisd.org
United Nations System Staff College (UNSSC)
Established in 2002 as the pre-eminent learning arm of the UN, the College develops,
co-ordinates and provides cross-organization training programmes with a view to strengthening
collaboration within the UN system and increasing operational effectiveness. The UNSCC
reaches an average of 7,000 beneficiaries worldwide every year.
Address: Viale Maestri del Lavoro 10, 10127 Turin, Italy.
Website:
http://www.unssc.org/home
United Nations University (UNU)
Sponsored jointly by the UN and UNESCO, UNU is guaranteed academic freedom by a charter
approved by the General Assembly in 1973. It is governed by the UNU Council, composed
of 13 appointed members who serve six-year terms (in an individual capacity, not as
representatives of their countries), three ex officio members (the UN Secretary-General,
the UNESCO Director-General and the UNITAR Executive Director) and the UNU Rector.
Unlike a traditional university with a campus, students and faculty, it works through
networks of collaborating institutions and individuals to undertake multidisciplinary
research on problems of human survival, development and welfare; and to strengthen
research and training capabilities in developing countries. It also provides postgraduate
fellowships and PhD internships to scholars and scientists from developing countries.
The University focuses its work within two programme areas: peace and governance,
and environment and development.
Address: 5–53–70 Jingumae, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 150-8925, Japan.
Website:
http://www.unu.edu
Other UN Entities
In addition to the operational programmes and funds and the research and training
institutes there are several other entities that fall within the UN system.
International Computing Centre (ICC)
The Centre was established in 1971 as a common service, providing a wide range of
Information and Communication Technology Services, on a cost recovery basis, to its
users worldwide. More than 25 organizations, funds and programmes of the UN system
currently use its services and participate in its governance.
Address: Palais des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 10, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.unicc.org
Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS)
In 1996 the Assembly reviewed implementation of the global strategy for the prevention
and control of AIDS, and progress of the Joint UN Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS),
which became operational in 1996. The impact of the HIV/AIDS epidemic was seen to
be expanding and intensifying, particularly in developing countries, and new resource
mobilization mechanisms were called for to support countries in combating HIV/AIDS.
UNAIDS brings together the HIV/AIDS responses of 11 co-sponsor UN agencies, providing
an overall framework for action and ensuring better co-ordination between its members.
The co-sponsor agencies are: International Labour Organization (ILO), Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), United Nations Children’s Fund
(UNICEF), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Entity for Gender Equality
and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women), United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
(UNODC), United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), World Bank, World Food Programme
(WFP) and World Health Organization (WHO). The proposed budget for 2016–17 amounted
to US$484·8m.
Address: 20 avenue Appia, 1211 CH-Geneva 27, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.unaids.org
UN Office for Project Services (UNOPS)
Established in 1995, the self-funding unit provides a range of services for other
organizations in the UN system, the private sector, NGOs and academic institutions.
Services offered include procurement, recruitment and human resources, and loan supervision.
Address: Marmorvej 51, PO Box 2695, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
Website:
http://www.unops.org
United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN Women)
Established in July 2010, UN Women supports international political negotiations to
formulate globally agreed standards for gender equality and helps UN member states
to implement those standards by providing expertise and financial support. It merges
and builds on the work of four previously distinct parts of the UN system: the Division
for the Advancement of Women (DAW), the International Research and Training Institute
for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW), the Office of the Special Adviser on Gender
Issues and Advancement of Women (OSAGI) and the United Nations Development Fund for
Women (UNIFEM).
Address: 220 East 42nd St., New York, NY 10017, USA.
Website:
http://www.unwomen.org
United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR)
Established in 1999 after the UN General Assembly adopted an international strategy
for disaster reduction, UNISDR is the focal point in the UN system for the co-ordination
of disaster risk reduction (DRR) and the implementation of the international blueprint
for DRR. Its core areas of work include ensuring DRR is applied to climate change
adaptation, increasing investments for DRR, building disaster-resilient cities, schools
and hospitals, and strengthening the international system for DRR.
Address: 9–11 rue de Varembé, CH-1202 Geneva, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.unisdr.org
Information
The UN Statistics Division in New York provides a wide range of statistical outputs
and services for producers and users of statistics worldwide, facilitating national
and international policy formulation, implementation and monitoring. It produces printed
publications of statistics and statistical methods in the fields of international
merchandise trade, national accounts, demography and population, gender, industry,
energy, environment, human settlements and disability, as well as general statistics
compendiums including the Statistical Yearbook and World Statistics Pocketbook. Many
of its databases are available on CD-ROM and the internet.
Website:
http://unstats.un.org
UN Visitor Centre. Department of Public Information, United Nations Headquarters,
Room GA-1B-31, New York, NY 10017.
Website:
http://visit.un.org
UN Information Centres. UN information centres are located in 63 countries around
the world.
Website:
https://unic.un.org
Specialized Agencies of the UN
The intergovernmental agencies related to the UN by special agreements are separate
autonomous organizations which work with the UN and each other through the co-ordinating
machinery of the Economic and Social Council. Of these, 17 are ‘Specialized Agencies’
within the terms of the UN Charter, and report annually to ECOSOC.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
Origin
In 1943 the International Conference on Food and Agriculture, at Hot Springs, Virginia,
set up an Interim Commission, based in Washington, with a remit to establish an organization.
Its Constitution was signed on 16 Oct. 1945 in Quebec City. Today, membership totals
194 countries plus one member organization and two associate members. The European
Union was made a member as a ‘regional economic integration organization’ in 1991.
Aims and Activities
The aims of FAO are to raise levels of nutrition and standards of living; to improve
the production and distribution of all food and agricultural products from farms,
forests and fisheries; to improve the living conditions of rural populations; and,
by these means, to eliminate hunger. Its priority objectives are to encourage sustainable
agriculture and rural development as part of a long-term strategy for the conservation
and management of natural resources; and to ensure the availability of adequate food
supplies, by maximizing stability in the flow of supplies and securing access to food
by the poor.
In carrying out these aims, FAO promotes investment in agriculture, better soil and
water management, improved yields of crops and livestock, agricultural research and
the transfer of technology to developing countries; and encourages the conservation
of natural resources and rational use of fertilizers and pesticides; the development
and sustainable utilization of marine and inland fisheries; the sustainable management
of forest resources and the combating of animal disease. Technical assistance is provided
in all of these fields, and in nutrition, agricultural engineering, agrarian reform,
development communications, remote sensing for climate and vegetation, and the prevention
of post-harvest food losses. In addition, FAO works to maintain global biodiversity
with the emphasis on the genetic diversity of crop plants and domesticated animals;
and plays a major role in the collection, analysis and dissemination of information
on agricultural production and commodities. Finally, FAO acts as a neutral forum for
the discussion of issues, and advises governments on policy, through international
conferences like the World Food Summit in 1996, the World Food Summit: five years
later in 2002 and the World Summit on Food Security in 2009, all held in Rome.
Special FAO programmes help countries prepare for, and provide relief in the event
of, emergency food situations, in particular through the rehabilitation of agriculture
after disasters. The Special Programme for Food Security, launched in 1994, is designed
to assist target countries to increase food production and productivity as rapidly
as possible, primarily through the widespread adoption by farmers of available improved
production technologies, with the emphasis on high-potential areas. FAO provides support
for the global co-ordination of the programme and helps attract funds. The Emergency
Prevention System for Transboundary Animal and Plant Pests and Diseases (EMPRES),
established in 1994, strengthens FAO’s existing contribution to the prevention, control
and eradication of diseases and pests before they compromise food security, with locusts
and rinderpest among its priorities. The Global Information and Early Warning System
(GIEWS) provides current information on the world food situation and identifies countries
threatened by shortages to guide potential donors. The interagency Food Insecurity
and Vulnerability Information and Mapping System initiative (FIVIMS) was established
in 1997, with FAO as its Secretariat. Together with the UN, FAO sponsors the World
Food Programme (WFP).
Finance
The FAO regular budget for the 2018–19 biennium was US$1,005·6m. FAO’s overall programme
of work is funded by assessed and voluntary contributions. Member countries’ assessed
contributions comprise the regular budget, set at the biennial FAO Conference.
The total FAO Budget planned for 2018–19 was US$2·6bn. Of this amount 39% was to come
from assessed contributions paid by member countries, with 61% mobilized through voluntary
contributions from members and other partners.
The voluntary contributions provided by members and other partners support technical
and emergency (including rehabilitation) assistance to governments for clearly defined
purposes linked to the results framework, as well as direct support to FAO’s core
work. The voluntary contributions were expected to reach approximately US$1·6bn. in
2018–19.
In 2014–15, 304 projects totalling US$98·7m. were approved for development support.
Organization
The FAO Conference, composed of all members, meets every other year to determine policy
and approve the FAO’s budget and programme. The 49-member Council, elected by the
Conference, serves as FAO’s governing body between conference sessions. Much of its
work is carried out by dozens of regional or specialist commissions, such as the Asia-Pacific
Fishery Commission, the European Commission on Agriculture and the Commission on Plant
Genetic Resources. The Director-General is elected for a renewable six-year term.
Headquarters: Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy.
Website:
http://www.fao.org
Director-General: Qu Dongyu (China).
Publications
Unasylva, 1947 ff.—The State of Food and Agriculture, 1947 ff.—FAO Statistical Yearbook:
World Food and Agriculture, 2004 ff. (regional versions for: Africa; Asia and the
Pacific; Europe and Central Asia; Latin America and the Caribbean; Near East and North
Africa).—Commodity Market Review (biennial), 1961 ff.—FAO Yearbook of Forest Products,
1947 ff.—FAO Yearbook. Fishery and Aquaculture Statistics.—The State of World Fisheries
and Aquaculture (biennial).—The State of Food Insecurity in the World, 1999 ff.—The
State of the World’s Forests, 1995 ff.—World Watch List: for Domestic Animal Diversity.
3rd ed. 2000.—Food and Nutrition in Numbers (online only). 2014.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) — The World Bank
Origin
Conceived at the UN Monetary and Financial Conference at Bretton Woods (New Hampshire,
USA) in July 1944, the IBRD, frequently called the World Bank, began operations in
June 1946, its purpose being to provide funds, policy guidance and technical assistance
to facilitate economic development in its poorer member countries. The Group comprises
four other organizations: the International Development Association (IDA), which provides
interest-free loans and grants to governments of the poorest countries; the International
Finance Corporation (IFC), which provides loans, equity and technical assistance to
stimulate private sector investment in developing countries; the Multilateral Investment
Guarantee Agency (MIGA), which provides guarantees against losses caused by non-commercial
risks to investors in developing countries; and the International Centre for Settlement
of Investment Disputes (ICSID), which provides international facilities for conciliation
and arbitration of investment disputes.
Members
Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Armenia, Australia,
Austria, Azerbaijan, The Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium,
Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei,
Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Central African
Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Republic of the Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial
Guinea, Eritrea, Estonia, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, The Gambia,
Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana,
Haiti, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel,
Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kiribati, South Korea, Kosovo, Kuwait,
Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Madagascar, Malaŵi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritania,
Mauritius, Mexico, Micronesia, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Mozambique,
Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria,
North Macedonia, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Palau, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay,
Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, St Kitts and
Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, São Tomé and Príncipe,
Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname,
Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tonga,
Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Ukraine, United
Arab Emirates, UK, USA, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia,
Zimbabwe.
Activities
The Bank obtains its funds from the following sources: capital paid in by member countries;
sales of its own securities; sales of parts of its loans; repayments; and net earnings.
A resolution of the Board of Governors of 27 April 1988 provides that the paid-in
portion of the shares authorized to be subscribed under it will be 3%.
The Bank is self-supporting, raising most of its money on the world’s financial markets.
In the fiscal year ending 30 June 2015 allocable income totalled US$686m., compared
to US$769m. for the year ending 30 June 2014.
In the fiscal year 2015 the Bank lent US$23∙5bn. for 112 new operations. Cumulative
lending had totalled US$629bn. by June 2015.
The Consultative Group to Assist the Poor (CGAP) works toward a world in which everyone
has access to the financial services they need to improve their lives. Established
in 1995 and housed at the World Bank, CGAP combines a pragmatic approach to market
development with an evidence-based advocacy platform to advance poor people’s access
to finance. Its global network of members includes over 30 development agencies, private
foundations and national governments that share a common vision of improving the lives
of poor people with better access to finance.
For the purposes of its analytical and operational work, in 2019 the IBRD characterized
economies as follows: low income (average annual per capita gross national income
of $1,025 or less); lower middle income (between $1,026 and $3,995); upper middle
income (between $3,996 and $12,375); and high income ($12,376 or more).
A wide variety of technical assistance is at the core of IBRD’s activities. It acts
as executing agency for a number of pre-investment surveys financed by the UN Development
Programme. There are more than 100 offices in countries throughout the world. The
Bank maintains a staff college, the World Bank Institute in Washington, D.C., for
senior officials of member countries.
Access to Information
Effective 1 July 2010, the World Bank Policy on Access to Information marked a pivotal
shift in the World Bank’s approach to making information available to the public.
Now the public can obtain more information about projects under preparation, projects
under implementation, analytic and advisory activities, and Board proceedings. The
policy also includes a clear process for making information publicly available and
a right to appeal if information seekers believe they were improperly or unreasonably
denied access to information or there is a public interest case to override an exception
that restricts certain information.
Organization
As of Feb. 2019 the Bank had 189 members, each with voting power in the institution,
based on shareholding which in turn is based on a country’s economic growth. The president
is selected by the Bank’s Board of Executive Directors. The initial term is five years,
with a second of five years or less.
Current Leaders
David Malpass
Position
President
Introduction
David Malpass became president of the World Bank Group in April 2019 following the
unexpected resignation of Jim Yong Kim. The US-born economist and civil servant was
President Trump’s favoured candidate for the role, which has traditionally been filled
by a US citizen.
Early Life
David Robert Malpass was born on 8 March 1956 in Petoskey, Michigan, USA. He studied
physics at Colorado College and later received a master’s degree in business administration
from the University of Denver. He then studied international economics at Georgetown
University’s School of Foreign Service. Between 1977 and 1983 he worked as an analyst
at Arthur Anderson and the ESCO Corporation in Portland, Oregon.
Malpass joined the US government’s Senate budget committee in 1984, serving for two
years as a senior analyst for taxes and trade before taking a managerial position
at the US Treasury department. In 1990, under the Presidency of George H. W. Bush,
he became the deputy assistant secretary of state for Latin American economic affairs,
supporting the Enterprise for the America’s Initiative and Brady bonds to address
the Latin American debt crisis.
In 1993 Malpass joined Bear Stearns, a New York-based international investment bank.
He was promoted to chief economist in 2002, remaining until 2008 when the firm collapsed
owing to its exposure to subprime mortgage-backed assets. It was bought by J. P. Morgan
Chase for a fraction of its pre-crisis share price. Later in 2008, Malpass founded
Encima Global, a New York-based company providing international political and economic
analysis.
In March 2017 Malpass was nominated to serve in the Trump administration as undersecretary
of the Treasury for international affairs. Early in 2019, following Jim Yong Kim’s
unexpected resignation from the helm of the World Bank, Malpass was appointed to serve
a five-year term as president, taking over from interim leader Kristalina Georgieva,
on 9 April.
Career in Office
Malpass is expected to spearhead the organization’s work to end extreme poverty by
2030, reduce inequality and boost shared prosperity around the world. Sceptical of
multilateralism, he is likely to follow a narrower vision for the World Bank, concentrating
on providing assistance to the poorest countries. Critics are concerned about a potential
reduction in support for broader issues including climate change and healthcare.
European office: 66 avenue d’Iéna, 75116 Paris, France. London office: Milbank Tower,
12th Floor, 21–24 Milbank, London, SW1P 4QP, England. Tokyo office: 10th Floor, Fukoku
Seimei Building, 2-2-2 Uchisaiwai-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0011 Japan.
Headquarters: 1818 H St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20433, USA.
Website:
http://www.worldbank.org
President: David Malpass (USA).
Publications
World Bank Annual Report.—Publications and e-Products e-Catalog (biannual).—World
Development Report (annual).—Environment Matters at the World Bank (annual).—World
Bank Research Digest (quarterly).—World Development Indicators (annual).—World Bank
Research E-Newsletter (monthly).—Handbook on Impact Evaluation: Quantitative Methods
and Practices (online only). 2010.—The New Microfinance Handbook: A Financial Market
System Perspective (online only). 2013.
International Development Association (IDA)
A lending agency established in 1960 and administered by the IBRD to provide assistance
on concessional terms to the poorest developing countries. Its resources consist of
subscriptions and general replenishments from its more industrialized and developed
members, special contributions and transfers from the net earnings of IBRD. Officers
and staff of the IBRD serve concurrently as officers and staff of the IDA at the World
Bank headquarters (see above). In fiscal year 2015 IDA commitments totalled US$19bn.;
new commitments totalled 191 new operations. Since 1960 IDA has lent US$312bn. to
112 countries.
Headquarters: 1818 H St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20433, USA.
Website:
http://ida.worldbank.org
President: David Malpass (USA).
International Finance Corporation (IFC)
Established in 1956 to help strengthen the private sector in developing countries,
through the provision of long-term loans, equity investments, quasi-equity instruments,
standby financing, and structured finance and risk management products. It helps to
finance new ventures and assist established enterprises as they expand, upgrade or
diversify. In partnership with other donors, it provides a variety of technical assistance
and advisory services to public and private sector clients. To be eligible for financing,
projects must be profitable for investors, must benefit the economy of the country
concerned, and must comply with IFC’s environmental and social guidelines.
The majority of its funds are borrowed from the international financial markets through
public bond issues or private placements. Total capital at 30 June 2018 was US$26·1bn.
In fiscal year 2018 IFC’s long-term investment commitments totalled US$23·3bn., including
US$11·7bn. mobilized from investment partners. It has 184 members.
Headquarters: 2121 Pennsylvania Ave., NW, Washington, D.C., 20433, USA.
Website:
http://www.ifc.org
President: David Malpass (USA).
Chief Executive Officer: Philippe Le Houérou (France).
Publications
Annual Report (online only), 1995 ff.—Sustain (online only).—Doing Business (online
only), 2004 ff.
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Origin
The Convention providing for the establishment of the ICAO was drawn up by the International
Civil Aviation Conference held in Chicago in 1944. A Provisional International Civil
Aviation Organization (PICAO) operated for 20 months until the formal establishment
of ICAO on 4 April 1947. The Convention on International Civil Aviation superseded
the provisions of the Paris Convention of 1919 and the Pan American Convention on
Air Navigation of 1928.
Functions
It assists international civil aviation by establishing technical standards for safety
and efficiency of air navigation and promoting simpler procedures at borders; develops
regional plans for ground facilities and services needed for international flying;
disseminates air-transport statistics and prepares studies on aviation economics;
fosters the development of air law conventions and provides technical assistance to
states in developing civil aviation programmes.
Organization
The principal organs of ICAO are an Assembly, consisting of all members of the Organization,
and a Council, which is composed of 36 states elected by the Assembly for three years,
which meets in virtually continuous session. In electing these states, the Assembly
must give adequate representation to: (1) states of major importance in air transport;
(2) states which make the largest contribution to the provision of facilities for
the international civil air navigation; and (3) those states not otherwise included
whose election would ensure that all major geographical areas of the world were represented.
The budget approved for 2016 was $99·0m. CDN.
Headquarters: 999 Robert-Bourassa Blvd, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3C 5H7.
Website:
http://www.icao.int
President of the Council: Dr Olumuyiwa Benard Aliu (Nigeria).
Secretary-General: Fang Lui (China).
Publications
Annual Report of the Council.—ICAO Journal (quarterly).—ICAO Training Report (biannual).—ICAO
Regional Report.
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
The idea for an International Fund for Agricultural Development arose at the 1974
World Food Conference. An agreement to establish IFAD entered into force on 30 Nov.
1977, and the agency began its operations the following month. IFAD is an international
financial institution and a United Nations specialized agency dedicated to eradicating
rural poverty in developing countries. It mobilizes resources from its 176 member
countries to provide low-interest loans and grants to help middle and low-income member
countries fight poverty in their poor rural communities. IFAD works with national
partners to design and implement innovative initiatives that fit within national policies
and systems. These enable poor rural people to access the assets, services, knowledge,
skills and opportunities they need to overcome poverty. Since starting operations
in 1978, IFAD has invested more than US$17bn. in around 1,000 projects and programmes
that have reached some 500m. people.
Organization
The highest body is the Governing Council, on which all 176 member countries are represented.
Operations are overseen by an 18-member Executive Board (with 18 alternate members),
which is responsible to the Governing Council. The Fund works with many partner institutions,
including the World Bank, regional development banks and financial agencies, and other
UN agencies; many of these co-finance IFAD programmes and projects.
Headquarters: Via Paolo di Dono 44, 00142 Rome, Italy.
Website:
http://www.ifad.org
President: Gilbert F. Houngbo (Togo).
Publications
Annual Report, 1997 ff.—Polishing the Stone. 2007.—What Meets the Eye: Images of Rural
Poverty. 2003.
International Labour Organization (ILO)
Origin
The ILO was established in 1919 under the Treaty of Versailles as an autonomous institution
associated with the League of Nations. An agreement establishing its relationship
with the UN was approved in 1946, making the ILO the first Specialized Agency to be
associated with the UN. An intergovernmental agency with a tripartite structure, in
which representatives of governments, employers and workers participate, it seeks
through international action to improve labour and living conditions, to promote productive
employment and social justice for working people everywhere. On its fiftieth anniversary
in 1969 it was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In Jan. 2019 it numbered 187 members.
Functions
The ILO’s programme and budget set out four strategic objectives for the Organization
at the turn of the century: i) to promote and realize fundamental principles and rights
at work; ii) to create greater opportunities for women and men to secure decent employment
and income; iii) to enhance the coverage and effectiveness of social protection for
all; iv) to strengthen tripartism and social dialogue. The International Labour Conference
2017 adopted a budget of US$784·1m. for the 2018–19 biennium.
One of the ILO’s principal functions is the formulation of international standards
in the form of International Labour Conventions and Recommendations. Member countries
are required to submit Conventions to their competent national authorities with a
view to ratification. If a country ratifies a Convention it agrees to bring its laws
into line with its terms and to report periodically how these regulations are being
applied. More than 8,000 ratifications of 189 Conventions had been deposited by 31
Jan. 2016. Procedures are in place to ascertain whether Conventions thus ratified
are effectively applied. Recommendations do not require ratification, but member states
are obliged to consider them with a view to giving effect to their provisions by legislation
or other action. By 31 Jan. 2016 the International Labour Conference had adopted 204
Recommendations.
In June 1998 delegates to the 86th International Labour Conference adopted an ILO
Declaration in Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work, committing the Organization’s
member states to respect the principles inherent in a number of core labour standards:
the right of workers and employers to freedom of association and the effective right
to collective bargaining, and to work toward the elimination of all forms of forced
or compulsory labour, the effective abolition of child labour and the elimination
of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation.
Activities
In addition to its research and advisory activities, the ILO now conducts more than
1,000 technical co-operation programmes in over 80 countries with the help of some
60 donor institutions worldwide. The ILO has decentralized most such activities to
its regional, area and branch offices in over 40 countries. Decent Work Country Programmes
have been established as the main vehicle for delivery of ILO support to countries.
The ILO’s standard-setting and technical co-operation are reinforced by an extensive
research, training, education and publications programme. It has established two specialized
educational institutions: the International Institute for Labour Studies in Geneva,
and the International Centre for Advanced Technical and Vocational Training in Turin.
The International Institute for Labour Studies promotes the study and discussion of
policy issues. The core theme of its activities is the interaction between labour
institutions, development and civil society in a global economy. It identifies emerging
social and labour issues by opening up new areas for research and action; and encourages
systematic dialogue on social policy between the tripartite constituency of the ILO
and the international academic community, and other public opinion-makers.
The International Training Centre was set up in 1965 to lead the training programmes
implemented by the ILO as part of its technical co-operation activities. Member states
and the UN system also call on its resources and experience, and a UN Staff College
was established on the Turin Campus in 1996.
In June 2009 the International Labour Conference unanimously adopted a ‘Global Jobs
Pact’ to address the social and employment impact of the recent international financial
and economic crisis. The Pact promotes a productive recovery centred on investments,
employment and social protection. It provides an internationally agreed basis for
policy-making designed to reduce the time lag between economic recovery and a recovery
with decent work opportunities.
Organization
The International Labour Conference is the supreme deliberative organ of the ILO;
it meets annually in Geneva. National delegations are composed of two government delegates,
one employers’ delegate and one workers’ delegate. The Governing Body, elected by
the Conference, is the Executive Council. It is composed of 28 government members,
14 workers’ members and 14 employers’ members. Ten governments of countries of industrial
importance hold permanent seats on the Governing Body. These are: Brazil, China, France,
Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Russia, UK and USA. The remaining 18 government members
are elected every three years. Workers’ and employers’ representatives are elected
as individuals, not as national candidates.
Headquarters: International Labour Office, 4 route des Morillons, CH-1211 Geneva 22,
Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.ilo.org
Email: ilo@ilo.org
Director-General: Guy Ryder (United Kingdom).
Governing Body Chairperson: Claudio Julio de la Puente Ribeyro (Peru).
Publications include:
International Labour Review (annual; in three volumes).—Bulletin of Labour Statistics
(quarterly).—Official Bulletin and International Journal of Labour Research (biannual).—Yearbook
of Labour Statistics (online only).—World Employment and Social Outlook (biannual).—Encyclopaedia
of Occupational Health and Safety.—Key Indicators of the Labour Market (KILM).—International
Social Security Review (quarterly).—Global Wage Report (biennial).
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
Origin
The International Maritime Organization (formerly the InterGovernmental Maritime Consultative
Organization) was established as a specialized agency of the UN by a convention drafted
in 1948 at a UN maritime conference in Geneva. The Convention became effective on
17 March 1958 when it had been ratified by 21 countries, including seven with at least
1m. gross tons of shipping each. The IMCO started operations in 1959 and changed its
name to the IMO in 1982.
Functions
To facilitate co-operation among governments on technical matters affecting merchant
shipping, especially concerning safety and security at sea; to prevent and control
marine pollution caused by ships; to facilitate international maritime traffic. The
IMO is responsible for convening international maritime conferences and for drafting
international maritime conventions. It also provides technical assistance to countries
wishing to develop their maritime activities, and acts as a depositary authority for
international conventions regulating maritime affairs. The World Maritime University
(WMU), at Malmö, Sweden, was established in 1983; the IMO International Maritime Law
Institute (IMLI), at Valletta, Malta and the IMO International Maritime Academy, at
Trieste, Italy, both in 1989.
Organization
The IMO has 174 members and three associate members. The Assembly, composed of all
member states, normally meets every two years. The 40-member Council acts as governing
body between sessions. There are four principal committees (on maritime safety, legal
matters, marine environment protection and technical co-operation), which submit reports
or recommendations to the Assembly through the Council, and a Secretariat. Total expenditure
in 2017 amounted to £51,215,000.
Headquarters: 4 Albert Embankment, London, SE1 7SR, UK.
Website:
http://www.imo.org
Email: info@imo.org
Secretary-General: Kitack Lim (South Korea).
Publication
IMO News (quarterly).
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Established in 1945 as an independent organization, the International Monetary Fund
began financial operations on 1 March 1947. An agreement of mutual co-operation with
the UN came into force on 15 Nov. 1947. The first amendment to the Articles of Agreement,
creating the special drawing right (SDR), the IMF’s reserve asset, took effect on
28 July 1969. The second amendment took effect on 1 April 1978, and established a
new code of conduct for exchange arrangements in the wake of the collapse of the par
value system. The third amendment came into force on 11 Nov. 1992; it allowed for
the suspension of voting and related rights of any member that failed to settle its
outstanding obligations to the IMF. The fourth Amendment, in force from 10 Aug. 2009,
provided for a special one-time allocation of SDRs. A fifth amendment, effective 18
Feb. 2011, expanded the Fund’s investment authority. The sixth amendment, which took
effect on 3 March 2011, strengthened the representation of emerging economies through
ad hoc quota increases. On 26 Jan. 2016 the seventh amendment, concerning quota and
governance reform, was enacted.
Members
Afghanistan, Albania, Algeria, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Armenia, Australia,
Austria, Azerbaijan, The Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Barbados, Belarus, Belgium,
Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Bolivia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Botswana, Brazil, Brunei,
Bulgaria, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cabo Verde, Cambodia, Cameroon, Canada, Central African
Republic, Chad, Chile, China, Colombia, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo,
Republic of the Congo, Costa Rica, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic,
Denmark, Djibouti, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial
Guinea, Eritrea, Estonia, Eswatini, Ethiopia, Fiji, Finland, France, Gabon, The Gambia,
Georgia, Germany, Ghana, Greece, Grenada, Guatemala, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana,
Haiti, Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Ireland, Israel,
Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kiribati, South Korea, Kosovo, Kuwait,
Kyrgyzstan, Laos, Latvia, Lebanon, Lesotho, Liberia, Libya, Lithuania, Luxembourg,
Madagascar, Malaŵi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Marshall Islands, Mauritania,
Mauritius, Mexico, Micronesia, Moldova, Mongolia, Montenegro, Morocco, Mozambique,
Myanmar, Namibia, Nauru, Nepal, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Niger, Nigeria,
North Macedonia, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Palau, Panama, Papua New Guinea, Paraguay,
Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Romania, Russia, Rwanda, St Kitts and
Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Samoa, San Marino, São Tomé and Príncipe,
Saudi Arabia, Senegal, Serbia, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Slovakia, Slovenia,
Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname,
Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tonga,
Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turkey, Turkmenistan, Tuvalu, Uganda, Ukraine, United
Arab Emirates, UK, USA, Uruguay, Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, Venezuela, Vietnam, Yemen, Zambia,
Zimbabwe.
Aims
To promote international monetary co-operation, the expansion of international trade
and exchange rate stability; to assist in the removal of exchange restrictions and
the establishment of a multilateral system of payments; and to alleviate any serious
disequilibrium in members’ international balance of payments by making the financial
resources of the IMF available to them, usually subject to economic policy conditions.
Activities
The IMF is mandated to oversee the international monetary system and monitor the economic
and financial policies of its member countries. The IMF highlights possible risks
to domestic and external stability and advises on policy adjustments.
Lending
A core responsibility of the IMF is to provide loans to member countries experiencing
balance of payments problems. This financial assistance enables countries to rebuild
their international reserves, stabilize their currencies, continue paying for imports
and restore conditions for strong economic growth, while undertaking policies to correct
underlying problems. Unlike development banks, the IMF does not lend for specific
projects.
The IMF has various loan instruments, or ‘facilities’, that are tailored to address
the specific circumstances of its diverse membership. Nonconcessional loans are provided
mainly through Stand-By Arrangements (SBAs) and the Extended Fund Facility (which
is useful primarily for longer-term needs). The Flexible Credit Line (FCL) was introduced
in 2009, for countries with very strong fundamentals, policies and track records of
policy implementation.
The IMF also offers special financing facilities for low-income countries. A new Poverty
Reduction and Growth Trust, effective from Jan. 2010, incorporates: the Extended Credit
Facility, which provides flexible medium-term support; the Standby Credit Facility,
which addresses short-term and precautionary needs; and the Rapid Credit Facility,
which offers emergency support with limited conditionality. The IMF also provides
emergency assistance to support recovery from natural disasters and conflicts, in
some cases at concessional interest rates.
A major reform of the IMF’s lending facilities took place in March 2009. Conditions
linked to IMF loan disbursements are to be better focused and more adequately tailored
to the varying strengths of countries’ policies and fundamentals. The flexibility
of the SBA has been enhanced. In addition, access limits have been doubled, the cost
and maturity structure of the Fund’s lending has been simplified and its lending facilities
have been streamlined.
Technical assistance
The IMF provides technical assistance in its areas of core expertise: macroeconomic
policy, tax policy and revenue administration, expenditure management, monetary policy,
the exchange rate system, financial sector sustainability, and macroeconomic and financial
statistics. About 90% of IMF technical assistance goes to low and lower-middle income
countries. The IMF operates nine regional technical assistance centres: in the Pacific
(Fiji), the Caribbean (Barbados), five in Africa (Gabon, Ghana, Mali, Mauritius and
Tanzania), the Middle East (Lebanon) and Central America (Guatemala).
Finances
Quota subscriptions from member countries are the IMF’s main source of financing.
A member’s quota is largely determined by its economic position relative to other
members; it is also linked to their drawing rights on the IMF, their voting power
and their share of SDR allocations. Quotas are generally reviewed at least every five
years, although the 15th General Quota Review, which under normal circumstances would
have been completed in Dec. 2015, has been repeatedly delayed. The IMF can supplement
its resources through borrowing if it believes that resources might fall short of
members’ needs.
The General Arrangements to Borrow (GAB) and New Arrangements to Borrow (NAB) are
credit arrangements between the IMF and a group of member countries and institutions
to provide supplementary resources to the IMF to deal with an exceptional situation
that poses a threat to the stability of that system. The GAB, established in 1962,
enables the IMF to borrow specified amounts of currencies from 11 industrial countries
(or their central banks) under certain circumstances, at market-related rates of interest.
The potential credit available to the IMF under the GAB totals SDR 17bn., with an
additional SDR 1·5bn. available under an associated arrangement with Saudi Arabia.
The NAB, which came into effect in 1998, is a set of credit arrangements between the
IMF and 38 member countries and institutions. Importantly, the NAB is the facility
of first and principal recourse vis-à-vis the GAB. The maximum amount of resources
available to the IMF under the NAB and GAB is SDR 370bn.
In April 2009 the G20 agreed to increase the lending resources available to the IMF
by up to US$500bn., thereby tripling total pre-crisis lending resources. The increase
was to be made through immediate bilateral financing from IMF member countries and
by subsequently incorporating this financing into an expanded and more flexible NAB
increased by up to US$500bn. This objective was achieved by Sept. 2009.
Bilateral loans
Under such an agreement, the member normally commits to allow the Fund to make drawings
up to a specified ceiling during the period for which drawings can be made. In 2009
the IMF signed a number of bilateral loan agreements.
IMF notes
Some official creditors may prefer to invest in paper or notes issued by the IMF.
In 2009 the IMF’s Executive Board approved a new framework for issuing notes to the
official sector. China was the first country to have signed such a note purchase agreement.
SDR allocations
The IMF may allocate SDRs to members in proportion to their IMF quotas. Such an allocation
provides each member with a costless asset. There have been three general SDR allocations,
made in response to a long-term global need for reserve assets: (i) SDR 9·3bn., distributed
in 1970–72; (ii) SDR 12·3bn., distributed in 1979–81; and (iii) SDR 162·1bn., distributed
in Aug. 2009. A special one-off allocation of SDRs amounting to SDR 21·5bn. was implemented
on 9 Sept. 2009. This allocation was for those countries that joined the Fund after
1981—more than one fifth of the IMF membership—and had never received an SDR allocation.
As a result of reforms implemented in Jan. 2016, the combined quotas of the IMF’s
then 188 members totalled US$659bn.
Governance reform
Implemented on 28 April 2008 this reform made quotas more responsive to economic realities
by increasing the representation of fast-growing economies while at the same time
giving low-income countries more say in the IMF’s decision making. The reform built
on an initial step agreed by the IMF’s membership in Sept. 2006 to have ad hoc quota
increases for four countries—China, South Korea, Mexico and Turkey. In Dec. 2010 the
IMF Board of Governors approved a shift in quota share to dynamic emerging markets
and developing countries of more than 6% using the quota formulas at the time as the
basis. The reforms came into effect in Jan. 2016 as part of the IMF’s 14th General
Quota Review.
Organization
The highest authority is the Board of Governors; each member government is represented.
The Board of Governors has delegated many of its powers to the 24 executive directors
in Washington, D.C., who are appointed or elected by individual member countries or
groups of countries. The managing director is selected by the executive directors
and serves as chairman of the Executive Board, but may not vote except in case of
a tie. The term of office is for five years, but may be extended or terminated at
the discretion of the executive directors. The managing director is responsible for
the ordinary business of the IMF, under the direction of the executive directors,
and supervises a staff of about 2,400. There are three deputy managing directors.
As of Jan. 2019 the IMF had 189 members.
The IMF Institute is a specialized department providing training in macroeconomic
analysis and policy, and related subjects, for officials of member countries. In addition
to training offered in Washington, D.C., the IMF also offers training for country
officials through a network of eight regional training institutes and programmes.
These are: the Joint Vienna Institute (in Austria); the Africa Training Institute
(in Mauritius); the China–IMF Capacity Development Center (in Beijing, Shenzhen and
Dalian, China); the Georgia Training Program; the IMF-Middle East Center for Economics
and Finance (in Kuwait); the IMF-Singapore Regional Training Institute; the Joint
Regional Training Center for Latin America (in Brazil); and the South Asia Regional
Training and Technical Assistance Center (in India).
Current Leaders
Kristalina Georgieva
Position
Managing Director
Introduction
Kristalina Georgieva began her scheduled five-year tenure as managing director of
the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on 1 Oct. 2019. She replaced Christine Lagarde,
who left to become head of the European Central Bank, making Georgieva the first person
from an emerging economy to lead the institution.
Early Life
Georgieva was born on 13 Aug. 1953 in Sofia, Bulgaria, and studied political economy
and sociology at the Karl Marx Higher Institute of Economics in Sofia (now the University
of National and World Economy). Awarded a doctorate in economic science in 1977, she
became an associate professor at the university and remained there until 1991. Two
years later, she joined the World Bank in Washington, D.C., in the USA as an environmental
economist. She later became its director in charge of environmental strategy, policies
and lending.
In 2004 Georgieva moved to Moscow and served for three years as the World Bank’s director
for the Russian Federation. She returned to Washington, D.C, and led policy and lending
operations in infrastructure, urban development, agriculture, environment and social
development. As vice-president and corporate secretary of the World Bank from 2008–10,
she liaised between senior management and the Bank’s shareholder countries, playing
a key role in reforming the organization’s governance in the wake of the 2008 global
financial crisis.
In 2010 she was approved as the European Union’s commissioner for international co-operation,
humanitarian aid and crisis response. She oversaw humanitarian relief for the survivors
of earthquakes in Haiti and Chile and flooding in Pakistan. Her tenure saw an increase
in spending on aid and improvements in efficiency through schemes such as the Disaster
Risk Management Knowledge Centre. In 2014 she was appointed the European Commission’s
vice-president for budget and human resources.
Georgieva returned to the World Bank in Oct. 2016, when she was appointed chief executive
officer. When Jim Yong Kim unexpectedly resigned as president in Jan. 2019, more than
three years before the end of his term, Georgieva took over in Feb. in an interim
capacity for three months. On 25 Sept. 2019 she was named the new managing director
of the IMF.
Career in Office
Georgieva’s main objective is to ensure that the IMF’s long-term goals of supporting
sound monetary, fiscal and structural policies are met at a time when the global economy
is slowing down and there is a backlash against the IMF in numerous countries, including
Argentina and Ecuador. She is also expected to champion policies to tackle the climate
crisis and inequality gaps.
Headquarters: 700 19th St., NW, Washington, D.C., 20431, USA; 1900 Pennsylvania Ave.,
NW, Washington, D.C., 20431, USA. European offices in Paris and Brussels and regional
offices in Tokyo and Warsaw.
Website:
http://www.imf.org
Email: publicaffairs@imf.org
Managing Director: Kristalina Georgieva (Bulgaria).
Publications:
Annual Report of the Executive Board.—Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange
Restrictions.—International Financial Statistics (monthly).—IMF Survey (online).—IMF
Economic Review (quarterly).—World Economic Outlook (biannual).—Global Financial Stability
Report (biannual).—Finance and Development (quarterly).—Fiscal Monitor (biannual).—More
publications information may be found online at: http://www.imf.org/en/publications.
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
Origin
Founded in Paris in 1865 as the International Telegraph Union, the International Telecommunication
Union took its present name in 1934 and became a specialized agency of the United
Nations in 1947. Therefore, the ITU is the world’s oldest intergovernmental body.
Functions
To maintain and extend international co-operation for the improvement and rational
use of telecommunications of all kinds, and promote and offer technical assistance
to developing countries in the field of telecommunications; to promote the development
of technical facilities and their most efficient operation to improve the efficiency
of telecommunication services, increasing their usefulness and making them, so far
as possible, generally available to the public; to harmonize the actions of nations
in the attainment of these ends.
Organization
The supreme organ of the ITU is the Plenipotentiary Conference, which normally meets
every four years. A 48-member Council, elected by the Conference, meets annually in
Geneva and acts as the ITU’s governing body in the interval between Plenipotentiary
Conferences. A General Secretariat manages the administrative and financial aspects
of the ITU’s activities. The Secretary-General is also elected by the Conference.
The ITU is made up of three sectors: Radiocommunication Sector; Telecommunication
Standardization Sector; and Telecommunication Development Sector. The ITU has 193
member countries; a further 700 scientific and technical companies, public and private
operators, broadcasters and other organizations are also members.
Headquarters: Place des Nations, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.itu.int
Email: itumail@itu.int
Secretary-General: Houlin Zhao (China).
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
Origin
UNESCO’s Constitution was signed in London on 16 Nov. 1945 by 37 countries and the
Organization came into being in Nov. 1946 on the premise that: ‘Since wars begin in
the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defences of peace must be constructed’.
In Jan. 2019 UNESCO had 193 members. The USA, which had left in 1984 but rejoined
in 2003, left again in Dec. 2018. Israel also left in Dec. 2018. There are also 11
associate members that are not members of the UN (Anguilla, Aruba, British Virgin
Islands, Cayman Islands, Curaçao, Faroe Islands, Macao, Montserrat, New Caledonia,
Sint Maarten and Tokelau).
Aims and Activities
UNESCO’s primary objective is to contribute to peace and security in the world by
promoting collaboration among the nations through education, science, communication,
culture and the social and human sciences in order to further universal respect for
justice, democracy, the rule of the law, human rights and fundamental freedoms, affirmed
for all peoples by the UN Charter. Africa and gender equality are the Organization’s
two chief global priorities.
Education
Various activities support and foster national projects to renovate education systems
and develop alternative educational strategies towards a goal of lifelong education
for all. The World Development Forum in Dakar in 2000 set an agenda for progress towards
this aim expressed as six goals. Two of these, attaining universal primary education
by 2015 and gender parity in schooling by 2005, were also UN Millennium Development
Goals. Three elements define the context for pursuing this purpose: promoting education
as a fundamental right, improving the quality of education and stimulating experimentation,
innovation and policy dialogue.
Science
UNESCO seeks to promote international scientific co-operation and encourages scientific
research designed to improve living conditions and to protect ecosystems. Several
international programmes to better understand the Earth’s resources towards the advancement
of sustainable development have been initiated, including the Man and the Biosphere
(MAB) programme, the International Hydrological Programme (IHP), the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission (IOC) and the International Geoscience Programme (IGCP).
Culture
Promoting the preservation of heritage, both tangible and intangible, cultural diversity
and intercultural dialogue is the principal priority of UNESCO’s cultural programmes.
UNESCO’s World Heritage List, now covering 1,121 sites around the world, promotes
the preservation of monuments, cultural landscapes and natural sites.
Communication
Activities are geared to promoting the free flow of information, freedom of expression,
press freedom, media independence and pluralism. Another priority is to promote multilingualism
on the internet, bridge the digital divide and help disadvantaged groups participate
in the knowledge societies created through the information and communication technologies.
To this end, UNESCO promotes access to public domain information, as well as encouraging
the creation of local content.
Social and Human Sciences
UNESCO works to advance knowledge and intellectual co-operation in order to facilitate
social transformations conducive to justice, freedom, peace and human dignity. It
seeks to identify evolving social trends and develops and promotes principles and
standards based on universal values and ethics, such as the Universal Declaration
on the Human Genome and Human Rights (1997) and the International Declaration on Human
Genetic Data (2003).
Organization
The General Conference, composed of representatives from each member state, meets
biennially to decide policy, programme and budget. A 58-member Executive Board elected
by the Conference meets twice a year and there is a Secretariat. The approved budget
for the biennium 2016–17 was US$667m., with significant extra-budgetary contributions
for specific programmes provided by both public and private bodies.
There are also 11 separate UNESCO institutes and centres: the International Bureau
of Education (IBE), in Geneva; the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL), in
Hamburg; the International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP), in Paris and
Buenos Aires; the International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa (IICBA),
in Addis Ababa; the International Institute for Higher Education in Latin America
and the Caribbean (IESALC), in Caracas; the Institute for Information Technologies
in Education (IITE), in Moscow; the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS), in Montreal;
the UNESCO International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training
(UNEVOC), in Bonn; the UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education (UNESCO-IHE), in Delft;
the International Centre for Theoretical Physics (ICTP), in Trieste; and the Mahatma
Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace and Sustainable Development (MGIEP), in New
Delhi.
Headquarters: UNESCO House, 7 place Fontenoy, 75007 Paris, France; 1 rue Miollis,
75015 Paris, France.
Website:
http://www.unesco.org
Director-General: Audrey Azoulay (France).
Periodicals (published quarterly)
Museum International; International Social Science Journal; The UNESCO Courier; Prospects;
World Heritage Review.
United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO)
Origin
UNIDO was established by the UN General Assembly in 1966 and became a UN specialized
agency in 1985.
Aims and Activities
UNIDO helps developing countries in the formulation of policies and programmes in
the field of industrial development; analyses trends, disseminates information and
co-ordinates activities in their industrial development; acts as a forum for consultations
and negotiations directed towards the industrialization of developing countries; and
provides technical co-operation to developing countries for the implementation of
their development plans for sustainable industrialization in their public and private
sectors.
UNIDO focuses its efforts on three thematic priority areas: poverty reduction through
productive activities; trade capacity-building; and energy and the environment. Activities
under the thematic priorities are reflected in UNIDO’s medium-term programme frameworks
and biennial programme documents.
Organization
As part of the United Nations common system, UNIDO has the responsibility for promoting
industrialization throughout the developing world, in co-operation with its 168 member
states. Its headquarters are in Vienna, Austria. UNIDO maintains a field network of
47 regional and country offices around the world. UNIDO maintains offices in Brussels,
Geneva and New York.
The General Conference meets every two years to determine policy and approve the budget.
The 53-member Industrial Development Board (membership according to constitutional
lists) is elected by the General Conference. The General Conference also elects a
27-member Programme and Budget Committee for two years and appoints a Director-General
for four years.
Finance
UNIDO’s financial resources come from the regular and operational budgets, as well
as voluntary contributions. The regular and operational budget for 2017 amounted to
€86·2m. More than half of UNIDO’s funding comes from voluntary contributions. The
regular budget derives mainly from assessed contributions from member states with
a marginal proportion provided from such other sources as interest income, sales publications
and government contributions to the UNIDO field offices.
The Constitution of UNIDO provides for 6% of the net regular budget to be used for
the Regular Programme of Technical Cooperation. These resources are primarily used
for supporting the Organization’s operational and normative activities. The operational
budget derives mainly from support cost income (of 5–13%) earned from the implementation
of technical co-operation activities. Technical co-operation is funded mainly from
voluntary contributions from donor countries and institutions as well as UNDP, the
Multilateral Fund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocol, the Global Environment
Facility and the Common Fund for Communities.
Headquarters: Vienna International Centre, Wagramerstr. 5, POB 300, A-1400 Vienna,
Austria.
Website:
http://www.unido.org
Director-General: Li Yong (China).
Publications
UNIDO Annual Report.—Making It (quarterly).—UNIDO Times (newsletter).—The International
Yearbook of Industrial Statistics 2015.—Industrial Development Report 2016.—Introduction
to Inclusive and Sustainable Industrial Development. 2015.
Universal Postal Union (UPU)
Origin
The UPU was established in 1875, when the Universal Postal Convention adopted by the
Postal Congress of Berne on 9 Oct. 1874 came into force. It has 192 member countries.
Functions
The UPU provides co-operation between postal services and helps to ensure a universal
network of up-to-date products and services. To this end, UPU members are united in
a single postal territory for the reciprocal exchange of correspondence. A Specialized
Agency of the UN since 1948, the UPU is governed by its Constitution, adopted in 1964
(Vienna), and subsequent protocol amendments (1969, Tokyo; 1974, Lausanne; 1984, Hamburg;
1989, Washington; 1994, Seoul; 1999, Beijing; 2004, Bucharest; 2008, Geneva).
Organization
It is composed of a Universal Postal Congress which meets every four years; a 41-member
Council of Administration, which meets annually and is responsible for supervising
the affairs of the UPU between Congresses; a 40-member Postal Operations Council;
and an International Bureau which functions as the permanent Secretariat, responsible
for strategic planning and programme budgeting. A new UPU body, the Consultative Committee,
was created at the Bucharest Congress. This committee represents the external shareholders
of the postal sector as well as UPU member countries. The budget for annual expenditure
in 2019 was 65·5m. Swiss francs.
Headquarters: Weltpoststrasse 4, 3015 Berne, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.upu.int
Director-General: Bishar Abdirahman Hussein (Kenya).
Publications
Annual Report; ICTs, new services and transformation of the Post. 2010.—Postal Economics
in Developing Countries: Posts, Infrastructure of the 21st Century? 2008.—Postal Statistics
(annual).—Union Postale (quarterly); Universal POST*CODE® DataBase (online only);
Bucharest World Postal Strategy. 2004.
World Health Organization (WHO)
Origin
An International Conference convened by the UN Economic and Social Council to consider
a single health organization resulted in the adoption on 22 July 1946 of the Constitution
of the World Health Organization, which came into force on 7 April 1948.
Functions
WHO’s objective, as stated in the first article of the Constitution, is ‘the attainment
by all peoples of the highest possible level of health’. As the directing and co-ordinating
authority on international health, it establishes and maintains collaboration with
the UN, specialized agencies, governments, health administrations, professional and
other groups concerned with health. The Constitution also directs WHO to assist governments
to strengthen their health services; to stimulate and advance work to eradicate diseases;
to promote maternal and child health, mental health, medical research and the prevention
of accidents; to improve standards of teaching and training in the health professions,
and of nutrition, housing, sanitation, working conditions and other aspects of environmental
health. The Organization is also empowered to propose conventions, agreements and
regulations, and make recommendations about international health matters; to develop,
establish and promote international standards concerning foods, biological, pharmaceutical
and similar substances; to revise the international nomenclature of diseases, causes
of death and public health practices.
Methods of work
Co-operation in country projects is undertaken only on the request of the government
concerned, through the six regional offices of the Organization. Worldwide technical
services are made available by headquarters. Expert committees, chosen from the 47
advisory panels of experts, meet to advise the Director-General on a given subject.
Scientific groups and consultative meetings are called for similar purposes. To further
the education of health personnel of all categories, seminars, technical conferences
and training courses are organized, and advisors, consultants and lecturers are provided.
WHO awards fellowships for study to nationals of member countries.
Activities
The main thrust of WHO’s activities in recent years has been towards promoting national,
regional and global strategies for the attainment of the main social target of the
member states: ‘Health for All in the 21st Century’, or the attainment by all citizens
of the world of a level of health that will permit them to lead a socially and economically
productive life. Almost all countries indicated a high level of political commitment
to this goal; and guiding principles for formulating corresponding strategies and
plans of action were subsequently prepared.
WHO has organized its responsibilities into four priorities: enhancing global health
security, which includes preventing, detecting and containing disease outbreaks, preparing
the world for controlling pandemic influenza, combating new diseases such as SARS,
preparing for emergencies and responding quickly to minimize death and suffering;
accelerating progress on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) by reducing maternal
and child mortality, tackling the global epidemics of HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria,
promoting safe drinking water and sanitation, promoting gender equality and increasing
access to essential medicines; responding to non-communicable disease such as cardiovascular
diseases, diabetes and cancers by reducing smoking, promoting a healthy diet and physical
activity and reducing violence and road traffic crashes; promoting equity in health
through strengthening health systems to reach everyone, particularly the most vulnerable
people.
World Health Day is observed on 7 April every year. The 2019 theme for World Health
Day was ‘Universal health coverage: everyone, everywhere’. World No Tobacco Day is
held on 31 May each year; International Day Against Drug Abuse on 26 June; World AIDS
Day on 1 Dec.
The number of cancer cases is expected to increase by 37% between 2007 and 2030. The
incidence of lung cancers in women and prostate cancers in men in the Western world
is becoming far more prevalent. The incidence of other cancers is also rising rapidly,
especially in developing countries. Heart disease and stroke, the leading causes of
death in richer nations, will become more common in poorer countries. The number of
people affected by diabetes has risen from 171m. in 2000 to 387m. in 2014, and has
been forecast by the International Diabetes Federation to increase to 592m. by 2030.
There is likely to be a huge rise in some mental and neurological disorders, especially
dementias and particularly Alzheimer’s disease, which is projected to affect 34m.
people by 2025. In 2013 an estimated 650m. people suffered from mental and neurological
disorders. Dementia affected an estimated 36m. people in 2012 and some 50m. worldwide
suffered from epilepsy.
These projected increases are reported to be owing to a combination of factors, not
least population ageing and the rising prevalence of unhealthy lifestyles. Average
life expectancy at birth globally was 71 years in 2014. It is around 50 years in a
few low-income countries, well over 70 years in many countries and exceeds 80 years
in some. In 2014 there were an estimated 589m. people over 65. By 2030 that number
is expected to rise to 995m., representing nearly 12% of the world’s population.
According to WHO, the top ten causes of death in the world in 2016 were: coronary
(ischaemic) heart disease, 9·4m. deaths; stroke, 5·8m.; chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease, 3·0m.; lower respiratory infections, 3·0m.; Alzheimer disease and other dementias,
2·0m.; trachea, bronchus and lung cancers, 1·7m.; diabetes mellitus, 1·6m.; road injury,
1·4m.; diarrhoeal diseases, 1·4m.; tuberculosis, 1·3m. Tobacco kills nearly 6m. people
each year. In total, its use is responsible for the death of almost one in ten adults
worldwide.
In response, WHO has called for an intensified and sustained global campaign to encourage
healthy lifestyles and attack the main risk factors responsible for many of these
diseases: unhealthy diet, inadequate physical activity, smoking and obesity.
The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC) was developed in response
to the globalization of the tobacco epidemic, and is the first global health treaty
negotiated under the auspices of the World Health Organization. The provisions in
the Treaty require countries to ban tobacco advertising, sponsorship and promotion;
establish new packaging and labelling of tobacco products with prominent health warnings;
establish smoking bans in public places, increase price and tax on tobacco products;
and strengthen legislation to clamp down on tobacco smuggling, among other measures.
Good progress has been made towards several MDGs. The number of children globally
who died before their fifth birthday fell from 12·7m. in 1990 to 6·3m. in 2013. Women
dying as a result of pregnancy or childbirth declined from 532,000 in 1990 to 303,000
in 2015. Instances of underweight children aged five or under in the developing world
fell from 28% in 1990 to 17% in 2013. Around the world, new HIV infections declined
by 38% between 2001 and 2013 while those dying from the disease fell by 43% between
2003 and 2015. Malaria deaths fell by 48% between 2000 and 2015.
World Health Statistics 2016: Monitoring health for the Sustainable Development Goals
compiles data from worldwide sources on health-related issues including access to
health, life expectancy and death from main diseases. The report puts these results
in perspective and promotes healthier lifestyles in accordance with the WHO Sustainable
Development Goals agenda. Primarily it strives for universal health coverage and for
health equality among and within countries by 2030.
Organization
The principal organs of WHO are the World Health Assembly, the Executive Board and
the Secretariat. Each of the 194 member states has the right to be represented at
the Assembly, which meets annually in Geneva. The 34-member Executive Board is composed
of technically qualified health experts designated by as many member states as elected
by the Assembly. The Secretariat consists of technical and administrative staff headed
by a Director-General, who is appointed for not more than two five-year terms. Health
activities in member countries are carried out through regional organizations which
have been established in Africa (Brazzaville), South-East Asia (New Delhi), Europe
(Copenhagen), Eastern Mediterranean (Cairo) and Western Pacific (Manila). The Pan
American Sanitary Bureau in Washington serves as the regional office of WHO for the
Americas. It is the oldest international health agency in the world and is the Secretariat
of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO).
Finance
The proposed programme budget for 2018–19 amounted to US$4·4bn.
Current Leaders
Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus
Position
Director-General
Introduction
Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus was elected director-general of the WHO for a five-year
term in May 2017. The first African to lead the United Nations agency, he is a specialist
in malaria control and Ethiopia’s former minister of health.
Early Life
Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus was born in the city of Asmara, Ethiopia, on 23 Nov. 1965.
Graduating in biology from the University of Asmara in 1986, he went on to work for
the local health authority. He undertook further study in the UK, initially at University
of London’s School of Tropical Medicine and then at the University of Nottingham,
where in 2000 he was awarded a doctorate on malaria transmission and control in Ethiopia.
The following year he was appointed head of Tigre’s regional health bureau and oversaw
a modernization programme. He became a state minister for health in 2003 and in 2005
he was promoted to national health minister by then prime minister, Meles Zenawi.
He led ambitious reforms to the country’s health system—notably by creating more than
3,500 medical centres. Links were forged with international health organizations and
foundations and he served on the boards of several initiatives including, from 2009–11,
the Global Fund to fight AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria.
In 2012 Tedros was appointed Ethiopia’s minister for foreign affairs amid a reshuffle
organized by the new prime minister, Hailemariam Desalegn. He went on to lead the
negotiations of the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, in which 193 countries committed financing
to achieve the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals. He also served as chair of the
executive council of the African Union (AU) in 2014. In May 2016 Tedros announced
he would be standing for the post of director-general of the WHO, with backing from
the AU. He was elected with more than two-thirds of the vote on 23 May 2017.
Career in Office
After taking office on 1 July 2017 Tedros said that universal healthcare would be
central to his leadership. He added that other WHO priorities included the health
impacts of climate and environmental change. He courted controversy early in his tenure
as he was forced to rescind his choice in Oct. that year of former President Robert
Mugabe of Zimbabwe as a WHO goodwill ambassador in response to widespread condemnation.
In Oct. 2018 Tedros convened a meeting of the WHO Emergency Committee in response
to a new outbreak of the Ebola virus in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It was
decided not to declare a public health crisis at that time, although the Committee
remained deeply concerned and emphasized that response activities needed to be intensified
and that ongoing vigilance was critical.
In Jan. 2020, in response to an outbreak of a new coronavirus (since named Covid-19)
emanating from the city of Wuhan in China’s Hubei province, the WHO declared an international
public health emergency. The rapid spread of the infection beyond China’s borders,
and the rising number of fatalities, meanwhile prompted the introduction of travel
restrictions and some draconian quarantine measures. Acknowledging the grave threat
posed by the outbreak, Tedros stated at an international meeting of scientists and
other experts convened in Geneva, Switzerland, on the crisis in Feb. that ‘viruses
can have more powerful consequences than any terrorist action’ and that the world
should view Covid-19 as ‘public enemy number one’.
Headquarters: 20 avenue Appia, CH-1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.who.int
Director-General: Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus (Ethiopia).
Publications
World Health Report (annual).—World Health Statistics (annual).—Bulletin of the World
Health Organization (monthly).—WHO Technical Report Series (annual).—Consolidated
guidelines on HIV prevention, diagnosis, treatment and care for key populations. 2014.—Global
update on the health sector response to HIV, 2014. 2014.—Consolidated strategic information
guidelines for HIV in the health sector. 2015.—International Health Regulations. 2005.—WHO
Drug Information (quarterly).—Weekly Epidemiological Record.—International travel
and health.—The International Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Int.).
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
Origin
The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) was established in 1967 following
the conclusion of the Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization
in Stockholm. It was given a mandate by its member states to promote the protection
of intellectual property (IP) through co-operation among states and in collaboration
with other international organizations. The WIPO Convention entered into force on
26 April 1970 and WIPO became a specialized agency of the United Nations in 1974.
Aims and Activities
WIPO administers 26 treaties that deal with different legal and administrative aspects
of intellectual property, notably the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial
Property, the Patent Cooperation Treaty and the Bern Convention for the Protection
of Literary and Artistic Works. WIPO is dedicated to developing a balanced and accessible
international intellectual property (IP) system that rewards creativity, stimulates
innovation and contributes to economic development while safeguarding the public interest.
In Dec. 2008 WIPO member states adopted a new strategic framework for the Organization
comprising nine strategic goals that are designed to enable WIPO to more effectively
respond to an evolving technological, cultural and geo-economic environment. In addition
to goals relating to the balanced evolution of the international normative framework
of IP, to facilitating the use of IP for development and to the provision of premier
global IP services, WIPO’s new goals include a focus on building respect for IP; on
developing global IP infrastructure; on responsive communication; on becoming a world
reference source for IP information; and on addressing IP in relation to global policy
challenges such as climate change, public health and food security.
WIPO’s activities fall broadly into three clusters of activities, namely: the progressive
development of international IP law; IP capacity-building programmes to support the
efficient use of IP, particularly in developing countries; and services to industry
that facilitate the process of obtaining IP rights in multiple countries. Also, alternative
dispute resolution options for private parties are available through the WIPO Arbitration
and Mediation Center.
Organization
As at Jan. 2019 WIPO had 191 member states. WIPO is unique among the family of UN
organizations in that it is largely self-financing. The budget for the 2016–17 biennium
was 707·0m. Swiss francs. Over 90% of the Organization’s budget comes from earnings
derived from the services that WIPO provides to industry and the private sector. The
remainder of the budget is made up mainly of revenue generated by WIPO’s Arbitration
and Mediation Center, the sale of publications and contributions from member states.
Official languages: Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Russian and Spanish.
Headquarters: 34 chemin des Colombettes, CH-1211 Geneva 20, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.wipo.int
Director-General: Francis Gurry (Australia).
Periodicals
PCT Gazette (weekly).—PCT Newsletter (monthly).—International Designs Bulletin (weekly).—WIPO
Gazette of International Marks (weekly).—WIPO Magazine (6 a year).
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
Origin
A 1947 (Washington) Conference of Directors of the International Meteorological Organization
(est. 1873) adopted a Convention creating the World Meteorological Organization. The
WMO Convention became effective on 23 March 1950 and WMO was formally established.
It was recognized as a Specialized Agency of the UN in 1951.
Functions
(1) To facilitate worldwide co-operation in the establishment of networks of stations
for the making of meteorological observations as well as hydrological and other geophysical
observations related to meteorology, and to promote the establishment and maintenance
of centres charged with the provision of meteorological and related services; (2)
to promote the establishment and maintenance of systems for the rapid exchange of
meteorological and related information; (3) to promote standardization of meteorological
and related observations and ensure the uniform publication of observations and statistics;
(4) to further the application of meteorology to aviation, shipping, water problems,
agriculture and other human activities; (5) to promote activities in operational hydrology
and to further close co-operation between meteorological and hydrological services;
and (6) to encourage research and training in meteorology and, as appropriate, to
assist in co-ordinating the international aspects of such research and training.
Organization
WMO has 185 member states and six member territories responsible for the operation
of their own meteorological services. Congress, which is its supreme body, meets every
four years to approve policy, programme and budget, and adopt regulations. The Executive
Council meets at least once a year to prepare studies and recommendations for Congress,
and supervises the implementation of Congress resolutions and regulations. It has
37 members, comprising the President and three Vice-Presidents, as well as the Presidents
of the six Regional Associations (Africa, Asia, South America, North America, Central
America and the Caribbean, South-West Pacific, Europe), whose task is to co-ordinate
meteorological activity within their regions, and 27 members elected in their personal
capacity. There are eight Technical Commissions composed of experts nominated by members
of WMO, whose remit includes the following areas: basic systems, climatology, instruments
and methods of observation, atmospheric sciences, aeronautical meteorology, agricultural
meteorology, hydrology, oceanography and marine meteorology. A permanent Secretariat
is maintained in Geneva. There are four regional offices for Africa, Asia and the
South-West Pacific, the Americas and Europe. The expected regular budget for 2017
was 65·2m. Swiss francs.
Headquarters: 7 bis, avenue de la Paix, Case Postale 2300, CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland.
Website:
https://public.wmo.int/en
Email: wmo@wmo.int
Secretary-General: Petteri Taalas (Finland).
Publications
WMO Bulletin (biannual).—MeteoWorld (quarterly).
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO)
Origin
Established in 1925 in The Hague as the International Congress of Official Tourist
Traffic Associations. Renamed the International Union for Official Tourism Organizations
after the Second World War when it moved to Geneva, it was renamed the World Tourism
Organization in 1975 and moved its headquarters to Madrid the following year.
The World Tourism Organization became an executing agency of the United Nations Development
Programme in 1976 and in 1977 a formal co-operation agreement was signed with the
UN itself. With a UN resolution on 23 Dec. 2003 the World Tourism Organization became
a specialized agency of the United Nations.
Aims
The World Tourism Organization exists to help nations throughout the world maximize
the positive impacts of tourism, such as job creation, new infrastructure and foreign
exchange earnings, while at the same time minimizing negative environmental or social
impacts.
Membership
The World Tourism Organization has three categories of membership: full membership
which is open to all sovereign states; associate membership which is open to all territories
not responsible for their external relations; and affiliate membership which comprises
a wide range of organizations and companies working either directly in travel and
tourism or in related sectors. In Jan. 2019 the World Tourism Organization had 158
full members, six associate members and more than 500 affiliate members.
Organization
The General Assembly meets every two years to approve the budget and programme of
work and to debate topics of vital importance to the tourism sector. The Executive
Council is the governing board, responsible for ensuring that the organization carries
out its work and keeps within its budget. The World Tourism Organization has six regional
commissions—Africa, the Americas, East Asia and the Pacific, Europe, the Middle East
and South Asia—which meet at least once a year. Specialized committees of World Tourism
Organization members advise on management and programme content.
Headquarters: Poeta Joan Maragall 42, 28020 Madrid, Spain.
Website:
http://www.unwto.org
Email: comm@unwto.org
Secretary-General: Zurab Pololikashvili (Georgia).
Publications
UNWTO Annual Report.—Yearbook of Tourism Statistics (annual).—UNWTO Tourism Highlights
(annual).—Compendium of Tourism Statistics (annual).—Travel and Tourism Barometer
(6 a year).—UNWTO News (monthly).
Other Organs Related to the UN
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA)
Origin
An intergovernmental agency, the IAEA was established in 1957 under the aegis of the
UN and reports annually to the General Assembly. Its Statute was approved on 26 Oct.
1956 at a conference at UN Headquarters.
Functions
To enhance the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout
the world; and to ensure that Agency assistance and activities are not used for any
military purpose. In addition, under the terms of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
(NPT), non-nuclear-weapon states are required to allow the IAEA to verify that their
nuclear activities are peaceful. Similar responsibilities are given to the IAEA as
part of the nuclear-weapon-free zone treaties in Latin America, the South Pacific,
Africa and Southeast Asia.
Activities
The IAEA gives advice and technical assistance to developing countries on a wide range
of aspects of nuclear power development. In addition, it promotes the use of radiation
and isotopes in agriculture, industry, medicine and hydrology through expert services,
training courses and fellowships, grants of equipment and supplies, research contracts,
scientific meetings and publications. In 2015 support for operational projects for
technical co-operation involved 3,477 expert and lecturer assignments, 5,126 meeting
participants, 2,722 participants in training courses and 1,852 fellows and scientific
visitors.
The IAEA uses technical measures (‘safeguards’) to verify that nuclear equipment or
materials are used exclusively for peaceful purposes. IAEA safeguards were applied
in 2015 in 181 States, with 2,114 inspections conducted. The five nuclear-weapon states
recognized by the NPT (China, France, Russia, UK and USA) are not required to accept
safeguards but have concluded Voluntary Offer Agreements that permit the IAEA access
to some of their civil nuclear activities.
Organization
The Statute provides for an annual General Conference, a 35-member Board of Governors
and a Secretariat headed by a Director-General and currently staffed by nearly 2,500
people from over 100 countries. The IAEA had 170 member states in Jan. 2019.
There are also research laboratories in Austria and Monaco. In addition, the International
Centre for Theoretical Physics was established in Trieste, Italy, in 1964, and is
operated jointly by UNESCO and the IAEA.
Headquarters: Vienna International Centre, PO Box 100, A-1400 Vienna, Austria.
Website:
http://www.iaea.org
Director General: Rafael Grossi (Argentina).
Publications
IAEA Annual Report.—IAEA Bulletin (quarterly).—INIS Reference Series.—Nuclear Fusion
(monthly).—Nuclear Safety Review (annual).—IAEA International Law Series.—International
Nuclear Information System (INIS).—Technical Reports Series. For a full list of IAEA
publications, visit the website: http://www.iaea.org/Publications/index.html
International Organization for Migration (IOM)
Established in 1951, the International Organization for Migration (IOM) is the principal
intergovernmental organization in the field of migration. As of Jan. 2019 the IOM
had 172 members.
Activities
IOM works to help ensure the orderly and humane management of migration, to promote
international co-operation on migration issues, to assist in the search for practical
solutions to migration problems and to provide humanitarian assistance to migrants
in need, be they refugees, displaced persons or other uprooted people. The IOM Constitution
gives explicit recognition to the link between migration and economic, social and
cultural development, as well as to the right of freedom of movement of persons. IOM’s
operational budget for 2018 was US$956·5m.
Official languages: English, French and Spanish.
Headquarters: Route des Morillons 17, POB 17, CH-1211 Geneva 19, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.iom.int
Email: hq@iom.int
Director-General: António Vitorino (Portugal).
Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)
The OPCW is responsible for the implementation of the Chemical Weapons Convention
(CWC), which became effective on 29 April 1997. The principal organ of the OPCW is
the Conference of the States Parties, composed of all the members of the Organization.
Given the relative simplicity of producing chemical warfare agents, the verification
provisions of the CWC are far-reaching. The routine monitoring regime involves submission
by States Parties of initial and annual declarations to the OPCW and initial visits
and systematic inspections of declared weapons storage, production and destruction
facilities. Verification is also applied to chemical industry facilities which produce,
process or consume dual-use chemicals listed in the convention.
The OPCW also co-ordinates assistance to any State Party that falls victim of chemical
warfare as it fosters international co-operation in the peaceful application of chemistry.
By Jan. 2019 a total of 193 countries and territories were States Parties to the Chemical
Weapons Convention.
Headquarters: Johan de Wittlaan 32, 2517 JR The Hague, Netherlands.
Website:
http://www.opcw.org
Director General: Ahmet Üzümcü (Turkey).
Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
(CTBTO)
The Preparatory Commission for the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
(CTBTO Preparatory Commission) is an international organization established by the
States Signatories to the Treaty on 19 Nov. 1996. It carries out the necessary preparations
for the effective implementation of the Treaty, and prepares for the first session
of the Conference of the States Parties to the Treaty.
The Preparatory Commission consists of a plenary body composed of all the States Signatories,
and the Provisional Technical Secretariat (PTS). Upon signing the Treaty a state becomes
a member of the Commission. Member states oversee the work of the Preparatory Commission
and fund its activities. The Commission’s main task is the establishment of the 337
facility International Monitoring System and the International Data Centre, its provisional
operation and the development of operational manuals. The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban
Treaty prohibits any nuclear weapon test explosion or any other nuclear explosion
anywhere in the world. As of Jan. 2019 the Treaty had 184 States Signatories and 167
ratifications.
See also Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) on page 71.
Headquarters: Vienna International Centre, PO Box 1200, A-1400 Vienna, Austria.
Website:
http://www.ctbto.org
Email: info@ctbto.org
Executive Secretary: Lassina Zerbo (Burkina Faso).
World Trade Organization (WTO)
Origin
The WTO came into being on 1 Jan. 1995. The bulk of the WTO’s current work comes from
the 1986–94 negotiations called the Uruguay Round and earlier negotiations under the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which was created in 1948.
Aims and Activities
The WTO agreements have been negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading
nations and provide the legal ground rules for international commerce. They act as
contracts, binding governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits.
The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters and importers conduct
their business, while allowing governments to meet social and environmental objectives.
The system’s overriding purpose is to help trade flow as freely as possible.
The WTO agreements cover goods, services and intellectual property. They spell out
the principles of liberalization and the permitted exceptions. They include individual
countries’ commitments to lower customs tariffs and other trade barriers, and to open
and keep open services markets. They set procedures for settling disputes. The agreements
are not static; they are renegotiated from time to time and new agreements can be
added to the package. The WTO began new negotiations under the ‘Doha Development Agenda’
launched in Nov. 2001. In Dec. 2013 all 159 member countries agreed to the ‘Bali package’,
an agreement to facilitate cross-border trade. It was the first comprehensive agreement
between all members in the organization’s history and analysts estimated that it could
add up to US$1trn. to the global economy.
Governments are required to make their trade policies transparent by notifying the
WTO about laws in force and measures adopted. Various WTO councils and committees
seek to ensure that these requirements are being followed and that WTO agreements
are being properly implemented. All WTO members must undergo periodic scrutiny of
their trade policies and practices, each review containing reports by the country
concerned and the WTO Secretariat.
The Dispute Settlement Understanding written into the WTO agreements provides a neutral
procedure based on an agreed legal foundation when conflicts of interest arise between
trading nations. Countries bring disputes to the WTO if they think their rights under
the agreements are being infringed. Judgments by specially appointed independent experts
are based on interpretations of the agreements and individual countries’ commitments.
Special provision is provided for developing countries, including longer time periods
to implement agreements and commitments, measures to increase their trading opportunities
and support to help them build their trade capacity, to handle disputes and to implement
technical standards. The WTO organizes hundreds of technical co-operation missions
to developing countries annually. It also holds numerous courses each year in Geneva
for government officials. Aid for Trade aims to help developing countries improve
the skills and infrastructure needed to expand their trade.
The WTO maintains regular dialogue with non-governmental organizations, parliamentarians,
other international organizations, the media and the general public on various aspects
of the WTO and the ongoing Doha negotiations, with the aim of enhancing co-operation
and increasing awareness of WTO activities.
Organization
As of Jan. 2019 the WTO had 164 members, accounting for around 95% of world trade.
The WTO is run by its member governments and derives its income from annual contributions
from its members. All major decisions are made by the membership as a whole, either
by ministers (who usually meet at least once every two years) or by their ambassadors
or delegates (who meet regularly in Geneva). Day-to-day work in between the ministerial
conferences is handled by three bodies: the General Council, the Dispute Settlement
Body and the Trade Policy Review Body. All three consist of all the WTO members. The
previous GATT Secretariat now serves the WTO, which has no resources of its own other
than its operating budget. The budget for 2018 was 197,203,900 Swiss francs.
Headquarters: Centre William Rappard, 154 rue de Lausanne, CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland.
Website:
http://www.wto.org
Email: enquiries@wto.org
Director-General: Roberto Azevêdo (Brazil).
Publications include:
Annual Report.—World Trade Report (annual).—International Trade Statistics (annual).—Trade
Policy Reviews.
UN Conventions
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities was adopted on 13 Dec.
2006 and came into force on 3 May 2008. With 82 signatories to the Convention and
44 signatories to the Optional Protocol, it holds the record for the highest number
of signatories to a UN convention on its opening day. As of Jan. 2019 it had 161 signatories.
The Convention recognizes the human rights of disabled people who have physical, mental
and/or sensory long-term impairments that may affect their full participation in society.
Article 1 lays out the convention’s aim ‘to promote, protect and ensure the full and
equal enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedoms by all persons with disabilities,
and to promote respect for their inherent dignity’. Member states are obliged to ensure
the equality and non-discrimination, health, education and employment of disabled
people. Every four years, each member state must submit a report on relevant measures
taken. A committee of 18 independent experts monitors the implementation of the convention
and normally meets in Geneva, Switzerland twice a year.
Headquarters: Secretariat for the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(SCRPD), Division for Inclusive Social Development (DISD), Department of Economic
and Social Affairs (DESA), United Nations Secretariat (29th Floor), 405 E 42nd Street,
New York, NY 10017, USA.
Website:
https://www.un.org/development/desa/disabilities/convention-on-the-rights-of-persons-with-disabilities.html
Email: enable@un.org
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification
The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) was adopted in Paris
in 1994 and came into force in Dec. 1996. Its 197 signatory parties (196 states and
the EU) meet every other year and work to combat the effects of desertification, drought
and land degradation. Specific attention is paid to Africa, where desertification
is most prevalent. The ten-year strategy covering 2008–18 focuses on improving living
conditions of affected parties, improving the condition of affected ecosystems and
mobilizing resources to build relationships between national and international participants.
The UNCCD encourages co-operation between nations and with international non-governmental
organizations. The body also works closely with the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) and the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). In March
2014 Canada became the first member state to withdraw from the convention, having
announced its intention to do so a year earlier with then Prime Minister Stephen Harper
claiming that it had become too bureaucratic. He maintained that less than a fifth
of the money that Canada gave to the organization went on programming.
Headquarters: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification, UN Campus, Platz
der Vereinten Nationen 1, 53113 Bonn, Germany.
Website:
http://www.unccd.int
Email: secretariat@unccd.int
Executive Secretary: Monique Barbut (France).
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
The Convention was produced at the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development
with the stated aim of reducing global greenhouse gas emissions to ‘a level that would
prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human induced) interference with the climate system’.
Signatories agreed to take account of climate change in their domestic policy and
to develop national programmes that would slow its progress. However, no mandatory
targets were established for the reduction of emissions so the treaty remained legally
non-binding. Instead it operates as a ‘framework’ document, with provisions for regular
updates and amendments. By Jan. 2019, 196 states and territories plus the European
Union had signed and ratified the Convention.
The first of these additions was the Kyoto Protocol in 1997. Under the protocol, 37
developed countries were committed to reducing their collective emissions of six greenhouse
gases to at least 5% below 1990 levels. These targets were scheduled to be met in
the period 2008–12. By 2012 results were mixed. The EU had reduced emissions by 21∙0%
and Russia by 50∙3%, while the USA’s had risen by 2∙7%, Canada’s by 42∙2%, New Zealand’s
by 111∙4% and Turkey’s by 163∙3%. In Dec. 2011 Canada announced it would be the first
signatory to formally withdraw from the agreement. A second commitment period of the
Kyoto Protocol began on 1 Jan. 2013. The USA has not ratified the protocol. China
and India, also amongst the world’s top five producers of emissions, are exempt from
the protocol’s constraints by virtue of their status as developing countries.
The members of the UNFCCC meet on an annual basis. The conference in Indonesia in
2007 led to the creation of the ‘Bali Roadmap’, which timetables negotiations for
a protocol to succeed Kyoto, a process continued at the 2008 conference in Poland.
The subsequent Copenhagen Accord of 2009 was not legally binding and failed to set
out concrete measures for tackling climate change. The 2011 conference, held in Durban,
South Africa, advanced negotiations on the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, the
Bali Action Plan and the Cancún Agreements. At the 18th conference in Doha, Qatar
in 2012 plans were laid for the development of a successor protocol by 2015 to be
implemented by 2020. The 2014 conference, in Lima, Peru, saw a framework agreement
approved by 194 nations for setting national pledges for submission at the conference
in Paris, France in 2015. The Paris conference duly concluded a global agreement on
countering climate change, although no country-specific goals were set. Follow-up
conferences were hosted in Marrakesh, Morocco, in Nov. 2016, Bonn, Germany, in Nov.
2017, Katowice, Poland, in Dec. 2018 and Madrid, Spain, in 2019. A further conference
is scheduled to take place in Glasgow, United Kingdom, in Nov. 2020. In June 2017
President Donald Trump announced his intention to withdraw the USA from the agreement,
although in accordance with the original terms of the agreement, withdrawal could
not take place before Nov. 2020 at the earliest.
Headquarters: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, UN Campus, Platz
der Vereinten Nationen 1, 53113 Bonn, Germany.
Website:
http://unfccc.int
Executive Secretary: Patricia Espinosa (Mexico).