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      Manifestaciones oftalmológicas de la hipertensión arterial Translated title: Ophthalmological manifestations of arterial hypertension

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          Abstract

          La hipertensión arterial sistémica (HTA) es una de las enfermedades más frecuentes en los países industrializados, llegando su incidencia hasta un 30%, cifra que va en aumento por la mayor esperanza de vida de la población. Esta elevación de la presión arterial ocasiona o acelera los cambios en la pared vascular de los órganos diana como el riñón, cerebro, corazón y ojo. A nivel ocular, la HTA produce lesiones en la retina, la coroides y cabeza del nervio óptico, pudiendo abarcar un amplio rango de lesiones, desde un estrechamiento vascular leve hasta una pérdida visual severa por neuropatía óptica isquémica. La respuesta primaria de las arterias retinianas a la hipertensión arterial sistémica es un estrechamiento vascular y los signos que aparecen en el fondo de ojo en la retinopatía hipertensiva son la vasoconstricción difusa o focal, la extravasación por permeabilidad vascular aumentada y la arteriolosclerosis con engrosamiento de la pared de los vasos. Estas tres entidades son las responsables de la aparición de diferentes lesiones que van a caracterizar los estadíos de la enfermedad retiniana como son: los cruces arteriovenosos, exudados duros y algodonosos, trombosis, embolias, hemorragias en el parénquima retiniano, desprendimiento seroso de retina, edema de papila y neuropatía óptica isquémica en los casos más severos como el caso de la hipertensión arterial maligna.

          Translated abstract

          Systemic Arterial hypertension (AHT) is one of the most frequent diseases in the industrialised countries, with an incidence reaching 30%, a figure that is rising due to the greater life expectancy of the population. This rise in arterial tension causes, or accelerates, changes in the vascular wall of the target organs such as the kidney, brain, heart and eye. At the ocular level, AHT produces lesions in the retina, the choroids and optic nerve head; this can include a wide range of lesions, from slight vascular narrowing to severe visual loss due to ischaemic optical neuropathy. The primary response of the retinal arteries to systemic arterial hypertension is vascular narrowing and the manifestations that appear at the back of the eye in hypertensive retinopathy are diffuse or focal vasoconstriction, extravasation due to increased vascular permeability and arteriosclerosis with swelling of the wall of the vessels. These three entities are responsible for the appearance of different lesions that characterise the stages of the retinal disease, which are: arteriovenous crossings, hard and cotton-like exudates, thrombosis, embolisms, haemorrhages in the retinal parenchyma, vitreous detachment from the retina, papilla edema and ischaemic optical neuropathy in the more severe cases, such as in case malign arterial hypertension.

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          Most cited references19

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          Methods for evaluation of retinal microvascular abnormalities associated with hypertension/sclerosis in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study.

          To develop protocols to photograph and evaluate retinal vascular abnormalities in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study; to test reproducibility of the grading system; and to explore the relationship of these microvascular changes with blood pressure. Population-based, cross-sectional study. Among 4 examination centers, 11,114 participants (48-73 years of age) at their third triennial examination, after excluding persons with diabetes from this analysis. One eye of each participant was photographed by technicians with nonmydriatic fundus cameras. Reading center graders evaluated focal arteriolar narrowing, arteriovenous (AV) nicking, and retinopathy by examining slides on a light box and measured diameters of all vessels in a zone surrounding the optic disc on enhanced digitized images. To gauge generalized narrowing, vessel diameters were combined into central arteriolar and venular equivalents with formulas adjusting for branching, and the ratio of equivalents (A/V ratio) was calculated. Retinal vascular abnormalities, mean arteriolar blood pressure (MABP). Among 11,114 participants, photographs were obtained of 99%, with quality sufficient to perform retinal evaluations in 81%. In the 9040 subjects with usable photographs, A/V ratio (lower values indicate generalized arteriolar narrowing) ranged from 0.57 to 1.22 (median = 0.84, interquartile range = 0.10), focal arteriolar narrowing was found in 7%, AV nicking in 6%, and retinopathy in 4%. Because of attrition of subjects and limitation of methods, prevalence of abnormality was likely underestimated. Controlling for gender, race, age, and smoking status, these retinal changes were associated with higher blood pressure. For every 10-mmHg increase in MABP, A/V ratio decreased by 0.02 unit (P < 0.0001), focal arteriolar narrowing had an odds ratio (OR) of 2.00 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.87-2.14), AV nicking had an OR of 1.25 (95% CI = 1.16-1.34), and retinopathy had an OR of 1.25 (95% CI = 1.15-1.37). For any degree of generalized narrowing, individuals with focal narrowing had MABP approximately 8 mmHg higher than those without (P < 0.0001). Masked replicate assessment of a sample found the following reproducibility: for A/V ratio, correlation coefficient = 0.79 and median absolute difference = 0.03; for focal arteriolar narrowing, kappa = 0.45; for AV nicking, kappa = 0.61; and for retinopathy, kappa = 0.89. Protocols have been developed for nonmydriatic fundus photography and for evaluation of retinal vascular abnormalities. Several microvascular changes were significantly associated with higher blood pressure; follow-up will show whether these are predictive of later cerebrovascular or cardiovascular disease independently of other known risk factors.
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            Pathophysiology of hypertensive retinopathy.

            The effects of systemic hypertension on the posterior segment of the eye are discussed under the headings of hypertensive choroidopathy, hypertensive retinopathy, and hypertensive optic disc edema. The sympathetic nervous control and autoregulatory mechanisms of the retinal and choroidal vasculatures are briefly reviewed. In hypertensive choroidopathy focal occlusion of choriocapillaris leads to necrosis of retinal pigment epithelium (Elschnig spots). Hypertensive retinopathy is described in vasoconstrictive, exudative, and sclerotic phases, followed by complications of the sclerotic phase. Hypertensive optic disc edema is influenced by the blood supply and extracellular tissue fluid pressure of the optic nervehead. In baboons with hypertensive disc edema, accumulation of axoplasmic components is observed in the optic nervehead.
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              Hypertensive retinopathy. Description, classification, and prognosis.

              J. Walsh (1982)
              In 1898 Marcus Gunn described the changes in retinal vessels noted with hypertension. Arteriolar narrowing, caliber irregularity, alterations of the light reflex, and hiding of the arterial blood column were noted. Arteriovenous crossing changes and capillary bed abnormalities, such as cotton-wool spots, retinal hemorrhages, and retinal edema were also mentioned, as well as blurred discs. In the 83 intervening years, little has been added to the description of hypertensive retinopathy, but our understanding has increased. Retinal vessels respond to elevations of systemic blood pressure by generalized arteriolar constriction. This can lead to arteriolar necrosis, retinal edema, cotton-wool spots, hemorrhage, and disc edema. If the blood pressure is controlled, or slow rising, or if arteriolar sclerosis is present in the retinal arteries, then a picture of arteriolar irregularity will be noted and, depending upon the ability of the retinal vessels to contract, segmental constriction will be seen. In separating hypertensives from nonhypertensives, the most consistent ophthalmoscopic finding is arteriolar narrowing with focal irregularity. In prognosticating for survival, the best method available is the Keith-Wagener-Barker classification. However, the difficulty in separating Groups 1 and 2 of this classification has lead to numerous modifications that make comparisons from one study to another difficult.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: ND
                Role: ND
                Journal
                asisna
                Anales del Sistema Sanitario de Navarra
                Anales Sis San Navarra
                Gobierno de Navarra. Departamento de Salud (Pamplona, Navarra, Spain )
                1137-6627
                2008
                : 31
                : suppl 3
                : 13-22
                Affiliations
                [01] Pamplona orgnameHospital de Navarra orgdiv1Servicio de Oftalmología
                Article
                S1137-66272008000600002
                10.4321/s1137-66272008000600002
                9fa6ce2a-bc95-41bf-a503-1fb5d616e2f9

                This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 International License.

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                Figures: 0, Tables: 0, Equations: 0, References: 14, Pages: 10
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                Hipertensión arterial,Retinopatía hipertensiva,Exudados retinianos,Cruces arteriovenosos,Arterial hypertension,Hypertensive retinopathy,Retinal exudates,Arteriovenous crossings

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