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      Food and waterborne protozoan parasites: The African perspective

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          Abstract

          Parasitic food-borne diseases, particularly those caused by the protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Cyclospora cayetanensis and Entamoeba are increasingly becoming common and have received considerable attention in the last two decades. The ability of the transmission stages of the parasites to survive in the environment for prolonged periods, globalization of the food industry and changes in eating habits have contributed to the numbers of human infections. This systematic scoping review highlights these important water- and foodborne parasites in the African context, detailing the burden in African water sources, wastewater/effluents and fresh produce. A scoping review search targeting African countries was conducted in Medline, Web of science and African journals online as well as back referencing from included studies covering the period 1990 to January 2020. Out of 1134 studies, 68 were included in the review. The articles covered 17 out of 54 African countries. There were 39/68 studies reporting on water sources while the rest reported on fresh produce. Cryptosporidium prevalence ranged from 6 to 100% in surface water, 4 to 100% in tap water and up to 100% in wastewater and sludge. In fresh produce, Cryptosporidium was reported from five countries with prevalence of 0.8–75%. Giardia was reported in 47 out of 68 articles; prevalence ranged from 2.4% in surface water; 1% to over 70% in tap water; 28–100% in wastewater and 2% - 99% in fresh produce. Prevalence of Cyclospora cayetanensis was lower. Prevalence of Entamoeba was 78% in surface water; 100% in wastewater and up to 99% in fresh produce. This study finds that Africa is no exception to the risk presented by the subject parasites from water and/or food sources. Routine screening for these parasites particularly at household level and provision of adequate and safe drinking water would help to control the parasites.

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          Highlights

          • •

            African rural communities faced with clean water challenges.

          • •

            African water bodies and sources contaminated with Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Cyclospora, and Entamoeba and other pathogens

          • •

            Fresh produce are carriers of protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Cyclospora, Entamoeba.

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          Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews.

          Micah D.J. Peters, Christina M Godfrey, Hanan Khalil … (2015)
          Reviews of primary research are becoming more common as evidence-based practice gains recognition as the benchmark for care, and the number of, and access to, primary research sources has grown. One of the newer review types is the 'scoping review'. In general, scoping reviews are commonly used for 'reconnaissance' - to clarify working definitions and conceptual boundaries of a topic or field. Scoping reviews are therefore particularly useful when a body of literature has not yet been comprehensively reviewed, or exhibits a complex or heterogeneous nature not amenable to a more precise systematic review of the evidence. While scoping reviews may be conducted to determine the value and probable scope of a full systematic review, they may also be undertaken as exercises in and of themselves to summarize and disseminate research findings, to identify research gaps, and to make recommendations for the future research. This article briefly introduces the reader to scoping reviews, how they are different to systematic reviews, and why they might be conducted. The methodology and guidance for the conduct of systematic scoping reviews outlined below was developed by members of the Joanna Briggs Institute and members of five Joanna Briggs Collaborating Centres.
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            Zoonotic potential and molecular epidemiology of Giardia species and giardiasis.

            Yaoyu Feng, Lihua Xiao (2011)
            Molecular diagnostic tools have been used recently in assessing the taxonomy, zoonotic potential, and transmission of Giardia species and giardiasis in humans and animals. The results of these studies have firmly established giardiasis as a zoonotic disease, although host adaptation at the genotype and subtype levels has reduced the likelihood of zoonotic transmission. These studies have also identified variations in the distribution of Giardia duodenalis genotypes among geographic areas and between domestic and wild ruminants and differences in clinical manifestations and outbreak potentials of assemblages A and B. Nevertheless, our efforts in characterizing the molecular epidemiology of giardiasis and the roles of various animals in the transmission of human giardiasis are compromised by the lack of case-control and longitudinal cohort studies and the sampling and testing of humans and animals living in the same community, the frequent occurrence of infections with mixed genotypes and subtypes, and the apparent heterozygosity at some genetic loci for some G. duodenalis genotypes. With the increased usage of multilocus genotyping tools, the development of next-generation subtyping tools, the integration of molecular analysis in epidemiological studies, and an improved understanding of the population genetics of G. duodenalis in humans and animals, we should soon have a better appreciation of the molecular epidemiology of giardiasis, the disease burden of zoonotic transmission, the taxonomy status and virulences of various G. duodenalis genotypes, and the ecology of environmental contamination.
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              Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: review of worldwide outbreaks - an update 2004-2010.

              Selma Baldursson, Panagiotis Karanis (2011)
              The present update gives a comprehensive review of worldwide waterborne parasitic protozoan outbreaks that occurred and were published globally between January 2004 and December 2010. At least one hundred and ninety-nine outbreaks of human diseases due to the waterborne transmission of parasitic protozoa occurred and were reported during the time period from 2004 to 2010. 46.7% of the documented outbreaks occurred on the Australian continent, 30.6% in North America and 16.5% in Europe. Cryptosporidium spp. was the etiological agent in 60.3% (120) of the outbreaks, Giardia lamblia in 35.2% (70) and other protozoa in 4.5% (9). Four outbreaks (2%) were caused by Toxoplasma gondii, three (1.5%) by Cyclospora cayetanensis. In two outbreaks (1%) Acanthamoeba spp. was identified as the causative agent. In one outbreak, G. lamblia (in 17.6% of stool samples) and Cryptosporidium parvum (in 2.7% of stool samples) as well as Entamoeba histolytica (in 9.4% of stool samples) and Blastocystis hominis (in 8.1% of stool samples) were detected. In those countries that are likely affected most a lack of surveillance systems is noticeable. However, countries that established surveillance systems did not establish an international standardization of reporting systems. Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Joyce Siwila
                Journal
                Journal ID (nlm-ta): Food Waterborne Parasitol
                Journal ID (iso-abbrev): Food Waterborne Parasitol
                Title: Food and Waterborne Parasitology
                Publisher: Elsevier
                ISSN (Electronic): 2405-6766
                Publication date PMC-release: 09 September 2020
                Publication date Collection: September 2020
                Publication date (Electronic): 09 September 2020
                Volume: 20
                Electronic Location Identifier: e00088
                Affiliations
                [a ]Department of Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia
                [b ]Department of Pathology and Microbiology, School of Medicine, University of Zambia, P.O. Box 50110, Lusaka, Zambia
                [c ]Ministry of Agriculture, P.O. Box 31658, Lusaka, Zambia
                Author notes
                [* ]Corresponding author. siwilaj@ 123456yahoo.co.uk
                Article
                Publisher ID: S2405-6766(20)30017-2 Publisher ID: e00088
                DOI: 10.1016/j.fawpar.2020.e00088
                PMC ID: 7502820
                PubMed ID: 32995582
                SO-VID: a1707bec-bf4e-4a93-b663-b9e756d5be52
                Copyright © © 2020 The Authors
                License:

                This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

                History
                Date received : 4 September 2019
                Date revision received : 24 July 2020
                Date accepted : 24 July 2020
                Categories
                Subject: Special issue on Africa

                Keywords: cryptosporidium,giardia,cyclospora,entamoeba,food- and waterborne parasites,africa
                Data availability:
                Keywords: cryptosporidium, giardia, cyclospora, entamoeba, food- and waterborne parasites, africa

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