Nitrolinoleate Inhibits Superoxide Generation, Degranulation, and Integrin Expression by Human Neutrophils : Novel Antiinflammatory Properties of Nitric Oxide–Derived Reactive Species in Vascular Cells

Oxidation of lipoproteins is important for the initiation and propagation of the atherosclerotic lesion and may involve secondary oxidants derived from nitric oxide. Nitric oxide (NO) reacts at near diffusion limited rates with superoxide (O2-.) to form the strong oxidant, peroxynitrite (ONOO-). Nitration on the ortho position of tyrosine is a major product of peroxynitrite attack on proteins. Nitrotyrosine was detected in atherosclerotic lesions of formalin-fixed human coronary arteries with polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies. Binding was pronounced in and around foamy macrophages within the atheroma deposits. Nitration was also observed in early subintimal fatty streaks. Antibody binding was completely blocked by co-incubation with 10mM nitrotyrosine, but not by equivalent concentrations of aminotyrosine or phosphotyrosine. The presence of nitrotyrosine indicates that oxidants derived from nitric oxide such as peroxynitrite are generated in human atherosclerosis and may be involved in its pathogenesis.

Oxidized LDL is implicated in atherosclerosis; however, the pathways that convert LDL into an atherogenic form in vivo are not established. Production of reactive nitrogen species may be one important pathway, since LDL recovered from human atherosclerotic aorta is enriched in nitrotyrosine. We now report that reactive nitrogen species generated by the MPO-H2O2-NO2- system of monocytes convert LDL into a form (NO2-LDL) that is avidly taken up and degraded by macrophages, leading to massive cholesterol deposition and foam cell formation, essential steps in lesion development. Incubation of LDL with isolated MPO, an H2O2-generating system, and nitrite (NO2-)-- a major end-product of NO metabolism--resulted in nitration of apolipoprotein B 100 tyrosyl residues and initiation of LDL lipid peroxidation. The time course of LDL protein nitration and lipid peroxidation paralleled the acquisition of high-affinity, concentration-dependent, and saturable binding of NO2-LDL to human monocyte-derived macrophages and mouse peritoneal macrophages. LDL modification and conversion into a high-uptake form occurred in the absence of free metal ions, required NO2-, occurred at physiological levels of Cl-, and was inhibited by heme poisons, catalase, and BHT. Macrophage binding of NO2-LDL was specific and mediated by neither the LDL receptor nor the scavenger receptor class A type I. Exposure of macrophages to NO2-LDL promoted cholesteryl ester synthesis, intracellular cholesterol and cholesteryl ester accumulation, and foam cell formation. Collectively, these results identify MPO-generated reactive nitrogen species as a physiologically plausible pathway for converting LDL into an atherogenic form.

The oxidative conversion of LDL into an atherogenic form is considered a pivotal event in the development of cardiovascular disease. Recent studies have identified reactive nitrogen species generated by monocytes by way of the myeloperoxidase-hydrogen peroxide-nitrite (MPO-H(2)O(2)-NO(2)(-)) system as a novel mechanism for converting LDL into a high-uptake form (NO(2)-LDL) for macrophages. We now identify the scavenger receptor CD36 as the major receptor responsible for high-affinity and saturable cellular recognition of NO(2)-LDL by murine and human macrophages. Using cells stably transfected with CD36, CD36-specific blocking mAbs, and CD36-null macrophages, we demonstrated CD36-dependent binding, cholesterol loading, and macrophage foam cell formation after exposure to NO(2)-LDL. Modification of LDL by the MPO-H(2)O(2)-NO(2)(-) system in the presence of up to 80% lipoprotein-deficient serum (LPDS) still resulted in the conversion of the lipoprotein into a high-uptake form for macrophages, whereas addition of less than 5% LPDS totally blocked Cu(2+)-catalyzed LDL oxidation and conversion into a ligand for CD36. Competition studies demonstrated that lipid oxidation products derived from 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine can serve as essential moieties on NO(2)-LDL recognized by CD36. Collectively, these results suggest that MPO-dependent conversion of LDL into a ligand for CD36 is a likely pathway for generating foam cells in vivo. MPO secreted from activated phagocytes may also tag phospholipid-containing targets for removal by CD36-positive cells.