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      Biological Nanoparticles in Vaccine Development

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          Abstract

          Vaccines represent one of the most successful public health initiatives worldwide. However, despite the vast number of highly effective vaccines, some infectious diseases still do not have vaccines available. New technologies are needed to fully realize the potential of vaccine development for both emerging infectious diseases and diseases for which there are currently no vaccines available. As can be seen by the success of the COVID-19 mRNA vaccines, nanoscale platforms are promising delivery vectors for effective and safe vaccines. Synthetic nanoscale platforms, including liposomes and inorganic nanoparticles and microparticles, have many advantages in the vaccine market, but often require multiple doses and addition of artificial adjuvants, such as aluminum hydroxide. Biologically derived nanoparticles, on the other hand, contain native pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), which can reduce the need for artificial adjuvants. Biological nanoparticles can be engineered to have many additional useful properties, including biodegradability, biocompatibility, and are often able to self-assemble, thereby allowing simple scale-up from benchtop to large-scale manufacturing. This review summarizes the state of the art in biologically derived nanoparticles and their capabilities as novel vaccine platforms.

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          Most cited references130

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          UCSF Chimera--a visualization system for exploratory research and analysis.

          The design, implementation, and capabilities of an extensible visualization system, UCSF Chimera, are discussed. Chimera is segmented into a core that provides basic services and visualization, and extensions that provide most higher level functionality. This architecture ensures that the extension mechanism satisfies the demands of outside developers who wish to incorporate new features. Two unusual extensions are presented: Multiscale, which adds the ability to visualize large-scale molecular assemblies such as viral coats, and Collaboratory, which allows researchers to share a Chimera session interactively despite being at separate locales. Other extensions include Multalign Viewer, for showing multiple sequence alignments and associated structures; ViewDock, for screening docked ligand orientations; Movie, for replaying molecular dynamics trajectories; and Volume Viewer, for display and analysis of volumetric data. A discussion of the usage of Chimera in real-world situations is given, along with anticipated future directions. Chimera includes full user documentation, is free to academic and nonprofit users, and is available for Microsoft Windows, Linux, Apple Mac OS X, SGI IRIX, and HP Tru64 Unix from http://www.cgl.ucsf.edu/chimera/. Copyright 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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            Overview of the immune response.

            The immune system has evolved to protect the host from a universe of pathogenic microbes that are themselves constantly evolving. The immune system also helps the host eliminate toxic or allergenic substances that enter through mucosal surfaces. Central to the immune system's ability to mobilize a response to an invading pathogen, toxin, or allergen is its ability to distinguish self from nonself. The host uses both innate and adaptive mechanisms to detect and eliminate pathogenic microbes, and both of these mechanisms include self-nonself discrimination. This overview identifies key mechanisms used by the immune system to respond to invading microbes and other exogenous threats and identifies settings in which disturbed immune function exacerbates tissue injury. Copyright 2010 American Academy of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology. Published by Mosby, Inc. All rights reserved.
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              Vaccine delivery: a matter of size, geometry, kinetics and molecular patterns.

              Researchers working on the development of vaccines face an inherent dilemma: to maximize immunogenicity without compromising safety and tolerability. Early vaccines often induced long-lived protective immune responses, but tolerability was a major problem. Newer vaccines have very few side effects but can be of limited immunogenicity. One way to tackle this problem is to design vaccines that have all the properties of pathogens with the exception of causing disease. Key features of pathogens that can be mimicked by vaccine delivery systems are their size, shape and surface molecule organization. In addition, pathogen-associated molecular patterns can be used to induce innate immune responses that promote adaptive immunity. In this Review, we discuss the approaches currently being used to optimize the delivery of antigens and enhance vaccine efficacy.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Journal
                Front Bioeng Biotechnol
                Front Bioeng Biotechnol
                Front. Bioeng. Biotechnol.
                Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology
                Frontiers Media S.A.
                2296-4185
                23 March 2022
                2022
                : 10
                : 867119
                Affiliations
                [1] 1 Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering , Cornell University , Ithaca, NY, United States
                [2] 2 Smith School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering , Cornell University , Ithaca, NY, United States
                Author notes

                Edited by: Shreyas S. Rao, University of Alabama, United States

                Reviewed by: Ryan M. Pearson, University of Maryland, United States

                Chiara Lico, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Italy

                *Correspondence: David Putnam, dap43@ 123456cornell.edu

                This article was submitted to Nanobiotechnology, a section of the journal Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology

                Article
                867119
                10.3389/fbioe.2022.867119
                8984165
                35402394
                a1b18c6a-f8d9-45d2-8c95-af73dbb81bbf
                Copyright © 2022 Curley and Putnam.

                This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

                History
                : 31 January 2022
                : 07 March 2022
                Categories
                Bioengineering and Biotechnology
                Review

                vaccines,nanoparticles,vlp,omv,protein cages
                vaccines, nanoparticles, vlp, omv, protein cages

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