Introduction
There is growing recognition that regionally scaled responses will be pivotal in adapting
to climate change (e.g. Kirshen et al. 2008; Reyer et al. 2012). This recognition
is echoed in South East Queensland (SEQ), where rapid population growth and coastal
urban centres have made it one of Australia’s most vulnerable regions and a focus
for climate adaptation research. As a collection of papers, this special edition contributes
to the emerging evidence base for adaptation in the region, but more broadly, the
various contributions draw together disciplines and theories that provide lessons
for future regionally scaled adaptation studies.
Why here, why now?
In 2007, discussions began between CSIRO (the Australian Government Research Organisation)
and the Queensland Government to better understand climate change vulnerability in
SEQ, Australia, and to explore practical and effective adaptation options to manage
the risks. These discussions took place in response to a converging set of priorities.
At the time, the Queensland Government was looking to implement its Climate Smart
Adaptation Strategy, ‘to enhance the State’s resilience to the impacts of climate
change’. In parallel, the statutory SEQ Regional Plan was in revision and sought to
incorporate climate change into the Regional Plan through a SEQ Climate Change Management
Plan.
SEQ was an important region in which to develop appropriate adaptation strategies
as it was identified as the highest priority region by the Prime Minister’s Science,
Engineering and Innovation Council report on Climate Change and Regional Australia
(PMSEIC 2007). This high priority ranking considered not only biophysical exposure
to climate change, but also the region’s increasing economic and social exposure and
sensitivity over the coming decades. By 2007, SEQ was Australia’s fastest growing
metropolitan region. In 2011, the population was 3.2 million and this is expected
to grow to between 4.2 and 5.1 million people by 2031 (see Roiko et al. 2012). The
region is large, diverse and institutionally complex, being governed by eleven local
government areas. It covers 22,890 km2, has 240 km of coastline, and includes a rich
diversity of coastal, rainforest, and sub-tropical woodland ecosystems (Fig. 1). While
the population is predominantly urban—which drives the regional economy—agriculture
and natural ecosystems are also economically and culturally important.
Fig. 1
South East Queensland, Australia (coastal shading showing the extent of inundation
from a 1.86 m storm surge—a possible 100ARI by 2050, Credit Yong Bing Khoo).
Climate change will affect different sectors in different ways and the ability to
adapt to climate change will also vary considerably across sectors. Hence, there are
important trade-offs between the options within sectors and between sectors that need
to be understood to confidently guide policy, industry, and community responses to
climate change. A comprehensive regional adaptation study in SEQ provided the opportunity
to examine both sectoral and cross-sectoral adaptation opportunities and trade-offs.
Two important requirements for undertaking such a regional study were to (a) have
multidisciplinary expertise in place, and (b) undertake the research in partnership
with policy makers, industry, and communities using participatory research approaches.
Multidisciplinary research teams were formed drawing on researchers and research teams
from various disciplines across a range of universities within the region and in CSIRO.
These research teams had experience in both climate adaptation and participatory research
and stakeholder engagement—experience considered essential for undertaking research
into adaptive capacity, vulnerability, sectoral adaptation options, and cross-sectoral
analysis and synthesis.
Sectoral options
This special edition focuses on cross-sectoral analysis, integration, and stakeholder
engagement, but includes a few more sectoral focused papers that exemplify both the
underpinning sectoral analyses and also underpin other, more integrative papers in
the edition.
Peak energy
Peak energy demand can cause unscheduled power shutdowns that present health risks
and losses in economic productivity. Quezada et al. (this edition) explore regional
peak energy supply adaptations in SEQ in the light of the path dependency inherent
in complex urban energy systems. Regional peak energy issues are already driven by
cooling demand (Seo et al. 2013). Hence, projected warming in SEQ stands to further
stress the energy system (Grozev et al. 2011). Adaptation options include retrofitting
houses for increased energy efficiency and using centralised remote control to stage
controlled shutdowns of air conditioners and other ‘electricity hungry’ devices during
peak electricity demand periods. However, Quezada et al. (this edition) take a socio-technical
systems view to show that adaptation has become a contested process. The multiple
actors along the energy supply chain hold diverging objectives, capacities, and requirements
from adaptation. Moreover, as a backdrop to any adaptation option is an historically
entrenched energy system not designed for distributed power generation and electric
vehicles, which may form part of SEQ’s future energy distribution system (Quezada
et al. this edition).
Biodiversity conservation
In addition to urban infrastructure, the region holds natural resources that underpin
both ecosystem services and the agricultural industry. Shoo et al. (this edition)
summarise key regional climate adaptation options for terrestrial and coastal ecosystems,
suggesting that strategies for promoting mobility of ecosystems and species, and removing
non-climate-related threats, are critical. Identified adaptations include providing
room for landward migration of tidal wetlands and increasing spatial connectivity
across the full range of bioclimatic variation. The protection of current and predicted
refuges from climate extremes is required. Managing the impact of urbanisation on
wildlife requires locations of reserves and human settlements to be planned to reduce
contact between wildlife and urban pressures, and to accommodate movement of flora
and fauna both uphill (to cooler refuges), and landward with sea-level rise (coastal
wetlands). To support such adaptations, the authors call for the initiation of long-term
studies of species responses to climate change, particularly across ecosystem gradients,
and including time-series data on species dynamics (Shoo et al. this edition). Synergies
also exist across sectors where less tangible benefits are nevertheless important
(Taylor and McAllister this edition). Coastal inundation remains a threat for maintaining
existing coastal biodiversity in SEQ. Instilling a preference for soft coastal defences
would help protect biodiversity-rich wetlands and maintain amenity as sea levels rise.
Upstream buffer zones around wetlands will also allow coastal ecosystems to migrate
(Traill et al. 2011).
Urban water security and flooding
Laves et al. (this edition) examine the challenges of delivering urban water in a
fast-growing region where future water supplies will be less secure. This demonstrates
one case where research has played a critical role in shaping regional adaptation.
While rainfall projections are uncertain, warming and lowering of soil moisture will
result in reduced rainfall run-off into water catchments. A portfolio approach to
adaptation is already being implemented in SEQ, which is diversifying the region’s
dam-based supply system to include treated wastewater for recycling into the potable
system, desalination of seawater, and demand management through behavioural change.
Today’s decisions for water cycle management establish path dependencies that will
shape the effectiveness of adaptation for decades, so special care is needed to avoid
maladaptation. Even though more energy is used when using potable water (dishwashers,
etc.) than in supplying it, regional adaptations will nevertheless increase the energy
intensity of the water system and hence potentially risk increasing greenhouse gas
emissions (Laves et al. this edition).
The management of urban water supplies in the region is inextricably linked with management
of floods. Bohensky and Leitch (this edition) analyse community perceptions of the
links between climate change, flooding, and infrastructure management. One of the
region’s worst recorded droughts was broken by major regional flooding events in January
2011. The event took 35 lives in SEQ, shut down the central business district, and
flooded around 20,000 houses. Public reaction provided a yardstick of the community’s
willingness to adapt in response to natural hazards. Bohensky and Leitch (this edition)
systematically analysed how the event was reported in the media, both during the flood
event and at its first anniversary. Much of the media and public response cast the
flood in terms of blame and political opportunity. The authors suggest that learning
was limited, as shown by inadequate attention being paid to longer-term regional issues.
This highlights the need for other mechanisms and actors to lead learning processes.
While not covered in this special edition, emergency management (Low Choy et al. 2012)
and adaptation for coastal inundation from storm surge (Wang et al. 2010) were also
key areas of adaptation research recently conducted in SEQ.
Cross-sectoral analysis
Many of the innovations required to adapt to climate change will need to come from
a cross-sectoral perspective. In this special edition, several papers address various,
frequently interlinked aspects of stakeholder engagement, cross-sectoral analysis,
and policy integration.
Integrative projects need a process for research teams to be organised for cross-fertilisation
of domain thinking. Taylor and McAllister (this edition) present the process used
for the three-year regional study in SEQ that formed the basis of this special edition
(McAllister et al. 2012). This process included structured reporting of emerging adaptation
options and subsequent series of workshops to: share sectoral perspectives, identify
cross-sectoral co-benefits and conflicts, and elucidate institutional interdependencies.
Taylor and McAllister (this edition) highlight cross-sectoral implications for exemplar
problems of (1) wetland migration, coastal infrastructure, and planned retreat; (2)
agricultural viability and terrestrial biodiversity; and (3) urban water security
and energy demand. Key overarching messages emerge. In order to implement regional
policy responses in an integrated way, new, intermediate levels of governance between
the local government and individual local households, or businesses, are needed (Taylor
and McAllister this edition). In particular, sub-regional coordination of key policies
is needed under the SEQ Regional Plan (e.g. the ‘open-space’ and ‘rural land-use strategies’
and biodiversity conservation policies).
Serrao-Neumann et al. (this edition) highlight the importance of applied cross-sectoral
policy integration. Exploring coastal areas, they articulate a process used to develop
policies, programs, and actions at the local and regional scale. Their collaborative
development of cross-sectoral adaptation options with stakeholders followed a learning-by-doing
and doing-by-learning approach. Learning-by-doing relates to the development of theoretical
knowledge from practice. From the human settlements research perspective, this was
pursued by engaging stakeholders from the outset of, and throughout the research.
Doing-by-learning relates to the development of practical knowledge from theory. This
was conducted in parallel, by reframing adaptation options proposed in the literature
in a manner more amenable to adoption and implementation, with reframing guided by
stakeholder feedback. The process provides an evidence base to underpinning requirements
for adaptation: (1) an informed and confident political, private sector, and community
leadership; supported by (2) an informed, engaged, and prepared community; that are
(3) reinforced through continuous awareness, training, education and capacity building
programs; and that operate in (4) a process of full stakeholder engagement leading
to mutually agreed actions.
Finally, in the context of running a regional research agenda with a strong focus
on engagement, McAllister et al. (this edition) sought to examine the bigger picture
of stakeholder participation in climate adaptation in SEQ. Similar to many other regions,
in SEQ, decisions are made and contested across a range of actors with divergent interests
(e.g. Taylor et al. in press), where organisations generally act based on their own
narrow, strategic interests. McAllister et al. (this edition) tracked organisational
participation in policy forums between 2008 and 2012. These forums included research-led
forums, as well as government- and NGO-led forums. They used network theory and interviews
to understand the nature of stakeholder engagement. They found that stakeholders generally
engaged in order to promote their organisation’s interests rather than using these
policy networks to source information for decision making in the public interest.
While the regional research agenda sought to inform policy, the research relating
to the engagement process suggests that cooperation on policy cannot be assumed and
that to expand the scope of policy options requires explicit efforts to counterbalance
special interest advocacy.
Feasibility and adaptive capacity options
Keys et al. (this edition) explore adaptive capacity—the factors that influence the
effectiveness of SEQ adaptation strategies across particular sectors. They combined
four methods of assessment: (1) an assessment of the socio-economic trends affecting
the region (Roiko et al. 2012); (2) an historical analysis of adaptive capacity across
a range of sectors and scales, including 33 international case studies (Bussey et
al. 2012); (3) a series of system conceptualisation workshops across various sectors
in SEQ (seven workshops with 66 participants); and (4) interviews with 42 SEQ sector
representatives to develop Bayesian belief networks to determine the probability of
successful adaptation under various conditions (Richards et al. 2013). The consolidation
of this research draws recommendations for building SEQ’s adaptive capacity (Keys
et al. this edition). Simultaneous initiatives are required that build: community
resilience and well-being; and new institutional and finance capacities. For example,
increasing the capacity of socially disadvantaged groups requires simultaneous initiatives
that: build networks and social capital, change policies that facilitate shared housing
arrangements, and provide financial incentives for implementing adaptive responses.
In addition, the intent of adaptation requires critique to avoid inferior path dependencies
(Thomsen et al. 2012). Adaptive capacity options also need to be considered across
various temporal scales and aligned to current norms, to judge their likely success
or failure, and to identify additional, complementary initiatives. In summary, while
resources will be critical for adaptation, the primary adaptive capacity challenges
for SEQ are likely to be cultural rather than structural.
Conclusions
The motivation for this special edition was a recent, three-year research project
exploring regional climate adaptation in SEQ, Australia. The papers illustrate how
the project targeted on-the-ground impact in four key ways (McAllister et al. 2012).
First, by direct engagement in local policy networks, incremental changes to how climate
change is planned have been supported. Researchers gave more than 70 stakeholder presentations
over the course of the project. Second, scientific information has been directly fed
into existing policy frameworks. Researchers contributed to six formal policy responses
over the course of the project and sat on eight climate change expert panels. Third,
political debates have been assisted by the provision of an evidence base on the value
of certain adaptation options. Examples include cost-benefit analyses of changing
planning codes for inundation risk and building codes for wind (Stewart and Wang 2011;
Wang et al. 2010). Fourth, and importantly, a substantial contribution has been made
to the climate change literacy of scholars and stakeholders, which builds our collective
adaptive capacity to meet future challenges. Eleven climate adaptation focused research
positions were created throughout the project, and seven PhD projects were directly
supported.
After the project’s inception in 2007, Australia’s so-called Millennium drought broke
with devastating SEQ floods in 2011. The project was completed in May 2012, and soon
afterwards in 2013, the nation recorded its hottest ever summer while the region experienced
more flooding and damaging winds. Our adaptation knowledge base has grown, particularly
with regard to the need to consider infrastructure, knowledge, and policy change adaptations
in unison. Meanwhile, government, policy, and economic conditions have all shifted
in recent years in ways that have slowed the push to adapt for regional climate change
in SEQ. While the future will always be uncertain, the need for adaptation is compelling.
With local context being a key driver in deciding which adaptations are most appropriate,
the regional scale will continue to be a key focus of attention.