Putting the Pieces Together in Gilles de la Tourette Syndrome: Exploring the Link Between Clinical Observations and the Biological Basis of Dysfunction

Abstract

Gilles de la Tourette syndrome is a complex, idiopathic neuropsychiatric disorder whose pathophysiological mechanisms have yet to be elucidated. It is phenotypically heterogeneous and manifests more often than not with both motor and behavioral impairment, although tics are its clinical hallmark. Tics themselves present with a complex profile as they characteristically wax and wane and are often preceded by premonitory somatosensory sensations to which it is said a tic is the response. Highly comorbid with obsessive–compulsive disorder and attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder, it is purported to be an epigenetic, neurodevelopmental spectrum disorder with a complex genetic profile. It has a childhood onset, occurs disproportionately in males, and shows spontaneous symptomatic attenuation by adulthood in the majority of those afflicted. Although not fully understood, its neurobiological basis is linked to dysfunction in the cortico-basal ganglia–thalamo–cortical network. Treatment modalities for Tourette syndrome include behavioral, pharmacological and surgical interventions, but there is presently no cure for the disorder. For those severely affected, deep brain stimulation (DBS) has recently become a viable therapeutic option. A key factor to attaining optimal results from this surgery is target selection, a topic still under debate due to the complex clinical profile presented by GTS patients. Depending on its phenotypic expression and the most problematic aspect of the disorder for the individual, one of three brain regions is most commonly chosen for stimulation: the thalamus, globus pallidus, or nucleus accumbens. Neurophysiological analyses of intra- and post-operative human electrophysiological recordings from clinical DBS studies suggest a link between tic behavior and activity in both the thalamus and globus pallidus. In particular, chronic recordings from the thalamus have shown a correlation between symptomatology and (1) spectral activity in gamma band power and (2) theta/gamma cross frequency coherence. These results suggest gamma oscillations and theta/gamma cross correlation dynamics may serve as biomarkers for dysfunction. While acute and chronic recordings from human subjects undergoing DBS have provided better insight into tic genesis and the neuropathophysiological mechanisms underlying Tourette syndrome, these studies are still sparse and the field would greatly benefit from further investigations. This review reports data and discoveries of scientific and clinical relevance from a wide variety of methods and provides up-to-date information about our current understanding of the pathomechanisms underlying Tourette syndrome. It gives a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge and addresses open questions in the field.