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      Kinderreanimation während SARS-CoV-2-Pandemie – eine Balance zwischen Eigenschutz und Faktor Zeit Translated title: Resuscitation of children during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic—a balance between self-protection and the factor of time

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      Notfall & Rettungsmedizin
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          Abstract

          Leserbrief zu Van de Voorde P, Biarent D, Bingham B et al (2020) Basismaßnahmen und erweiterte Maßnahmen zur Wiederbelebung von Kindern. Notfall Rettungsmed 23:251–256. 10.1007/s10049-020-00721-8 Erwiderung Hoffmann F, Böttiger BW, Eich C (2020) Bestmögliche Balance zwischen dem Risiko für die Helfer und dem Nutzen für den Patienten. Notfall Rettungsmed. 10.1007/s10049-020-00769-6 Mit Interesse haben wir die COVID-19-Leitlinien des European Resuscitation Council gelesen. Während wir die auf Expertenkonsens beruhenden Empfehlungen hinsichtlich der Schutzmaßnahmen bei Erwachsenen voll und ganz nachvollziehen können, halten wir die Empfehlungen für Kinder und Neugeborene in der Risiko-Nutzen-Abwägung für etwas unverhältnismäßig. Um das Risiko einer Transmission von SARS-COV‑2 auf das medizinische Personal zu minimieren, wird durch die Autoren auch für Reanimationen im Kindesalter das Tragen einer persönlichen Schutzausrüstung empfohlen, „wenn es sich um Kind mit Verdacht … auf Covid-19-Infekt handelt“ [1]. Gerade in den Herbst- und Wintermonaten liegt die Inzidenz von Infektionen der oberen Luftwege bei Kindern im Alter zwischen 0 und 6 Jahren bei etwa 0,5 pro Person pro Monat [2]. In diesen Monaten ist also davon auszugehen, dass wenigstens 50 % aller Reanimationen bei Kindern unter COVID-19-Verdacht erfolgen. In diesen Fällen wird sich die Reanimation daher um die Zeit verzögern, die zum Anlegen der PSA (persönliche Schutzausrüstung) nach den Vorgaben des RKI benötigt wird. Derzeit liegt die Überlebensrate von Kindern mit Herz-Kreislauf-Stillstand (CA, Cardiac Arrest) bei lediglich ca. 6,7–10,2 %, ohne wesentliche neurologische Defizite sogar nur bei ca. 1% [3]. Im Gegensatz zu einem CA bei Erwachsenen ist die Durchführung einer Reanimation im Kindesalter noch zeitkritischer. Hierfür erscheint der wesentlich höhere Anteil an Hypoxämie sowie die gleichzeitig deutlich reduzierte Hypoxämietoleranz ursächlich. Es muss daher die Frage gestellt werden, ob eine zeitliche Verzögerung durch das grundsätzliche Anlegen einer PSA (Schutzhandschuhe, Schutzkittel, Schutzbrille, FFP3-Maske) bei Kindern mit CA und Infektanamnese im Verhältnis zu einer möglichen Infektionsgefahr des Behandlers durch das zu reanimierende Kind steht. Zumal die Wahrscheinlichkeit eines COVID-19-Infekts als Ursache des Herz-Kreislauf-Stillstands aufgrund der niedrigen Inzidenz sehr unwahrscheinlich ist. Bezüglich der Viruslast bei Kindern gibt es bisher nur eine Studie. Diese hat bisher nicht den Peer-Review-Prozess durchlaufen und auch nur eine verhältnismäßig geringe Anzahl an COVID-19-positiven Kindern eingeschlossen [4]. Hier findet sich eine vergleichbare mittlere Viruslast bei Kindern und Erwachsenen. Basierend darauf schlussfolgern die Autoren, dass Kinder genauso infektiös sind wie Erwachsene. Interessanterweise finden sich aber doch einige Unterschiede zwischen Kindern und Erwachsenen. So ist der prozentuale Anteil an Kindern mit einer Viruslast von >250.000 Kopien/ml – der Konzentration, bei der basierend auf Zellkulturstudien mit einer Infektiosität oberhalb von 5 % zu rechnen ist – mit 29,0 % deutlich geringer als bei über 20-Jährigen, bei denen der prozentuale Anteil bei 51,4 % liegt. Außerdem finden sich in den älteren Altersgruppen Spitzenwerte der Viruslast, die um den Faktor 100 höher liegen, sodass die Anzahl der „Superspreader“ unter den Kindern geringer sein könnte. Rein epidemiologisch finden sich derzeit keinerlei Hinweise für eine hohe Infektiosität der Kinder. Im Gegenteil scheint die Infektiosität ebenso wie die Suszeptibilität für COVID-19 eher geringer zu sein als bei Erwachsenen, wobei auch hier der Großteil der Studien „non-peer-reviewed preprints“ sind. Tatsächlich muss aufgrund der niedrigen Inzidenz bei Kindern zur epidemiologischen Abschätzung der Infektiosität auf Einzelbeispiele zurückgegriffen werden, auch wenn diese Daten sicherlich sehr vorsichtig interpretiert werden müssen. Ein COVID-19-positives 9‑jähriges Kind mit milden Symptomen eines respiratorischen Infekts besuchte 1 Woche lang 3 Schulen plus eine Skischule mit 172 Kontakten, 70 hatten respiratorische Symptome und 3 wurden aus anderen Gründen getestet. Alle waren negativ [5]. Etwa 8 Wochen nach einer größeren Infektionswelle an einer französischen Schule wurden serologische Untersuchungen auf SARS-CoV‑2 durchgeführt. Hier fanden sich 40 % der 15- bis 17-Jährigen und 43 % der Lehrer positiv, aber nur 2,7 % der unter 15-Jährigen. Auch die Übertragungsrate innerhalb der Familien war trotz engen Kontakts mit ca. 11 % sehr gering [6]. Ähnliche epidemiologische Beobachtungen kommen aus Australien. Hier führte das National Centre for Immunisation Research and Surveillance (NCIRS) eine Nachverfolgung und Infektionsclusteranalyse von jeweils 9 an COVID-19 erkrankten Lehrern und Schülern an 15 Schulen durch. Dabei wurden insgesamt 863 Kontaktpersonen untersucht, von denen nur 2 für SARS-CoV‑2 positiv waren (http://www.ncirs.org.au/covid-19-in-schools). Auch in Familien scheinen Infektionsübertragungen eher durch infizierte Erwachsene zu erfolgen [7]. Belege oder klare Hinweise für eine Transmission durch ein infiziertes Kind auf mehrere Erwachsene fehlen bisher [8]. Natürlich handelt es sich auch bei diesen Daten um Studien ohne Peer Review. Wir sind aber der Ansicht, dass bei derzeit nicht klar nachgewiesener vergleichbarer Infektiosität von Kindern im Vergleich zu Erwachsenen eine Güterabwägung erfolgen sollte, die nicht zum Nachteil der Kinder geschehen darf. Es sollte daher eine Balance zwischen ausreichender Protektion des medizinischen Personals und bestmöglicher Therapie gefunden werden. Im Rahmen von Reanimationen bei Kindern mit Verdacht auf COVID-19 ist dies aus unserer Sicht das Anlegen einer Basis-PSA bestehend aus FFP3-Maske, Schutzbrille und Handschuhen vs. der vollen PSA aus FFP3-Maske, Schutzbrille, Handschuhen und Schutzkittel wie vom ERC empfohlen. Das Anlegen einer solchen Basis-PSA ist in weniger als 20 s möglich und erlaubt so einen unverzögerten Beginn der kardiopulmonalen Reanimation.

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          Cluster of coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) in the French Alps, 2020

          Abstract Background On 07/02/2020, French Health authorities were informed of a confirmed case of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus in an Englishman infected in Singapore who had recently stayed in a chalet in the French Alps. We conducted an investigation to identify secondary cases and interrupt transmission. Methods We defined as a confirmed case a person linked to the chalet with a positive RT-PCR sample for SARS-CoV-2. Results The index case stayed 4 days in the chalet with 10 English tourists and a family of 5 French residents; SARS-CoV-2 was detected in 5 individuals in France, 6 in England (including the index case), and 1 in Spain (overall attack rate in the chalet: 75%). One pediatric case, with picornavirus and influenza A coinfection, visited 3 different schools while symptomatic. One case was asymptomatic, with similar viral load as that of a symptomatic case. Seven days after the first cases were diagnosed, one tertiary case was detected in a symptomatic patient with a positive endotracheal aspirate; all previous and concurrent nasopharyngeal specimens were negative. Additionally, 172 contacts were monitored, including 73 tested negative for SARS-CoV-2. Conclusions The occurrence in this cluster of one asymptomatic case with similar viral load as a symptomatic patient, suggests transmission potential of asymptomatic individuals. The fact that an infected child did not transmit the disease despite close interactions within schools suggests potential different transmission dynamics in children. Finally, the dissociation between upper and lower respiratory tract results underscores the need for close monitoring of the clinical evolution of suspect Covid-19 cases.
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            Community Transmission of SARS-CoV-2 at Two Family Gatherings — Chicago, Illinois, February–March 2020

            SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has spread rapidly around the world since it was first recognized in late 2019. Most early reports of person-to-person SARS-CoV-2 transmission have been among household contacts, where the secondary attack rate has been estimated to exceed 10% ( 1 ), in health care facilities ( 2 ), and in congregate settings ( 3 ). However, widespread community transmission, as is currently being observed in the United States, requires more expansive transmission events between nonhousehold contacts. In February and March 2020, the Chicago Department of Public Health (CDPH) investigated a large, multifamily cluster of COVID-19. Patients with confirmed COVID-19 and their close contacts were interviewed to better understand nonhousehold, community transmission of SARS-CoV-2. This report describes the cluster of 16 cases of confirmed or probable COVID-19, including three deaths, likely resulting from transmission of SARS-CoV-2 at two family gatherings (a funeral and a birthday party). These data support current CDC social distancing recommendations intended to reduce SARS-CoV-2 transmission. U.S residents should follow stay-at-home orders when required by state or local authorities. During January 1–March 20, 2020, specimens that tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 at hospital, commercial, or public health laboratories were reported to CDPH; each triggered an epidemiologic investigation. Contact tracing interviews were conducted with patients with confirmed COVID-19 using a structured questionnaire designed to identify the date of symptom onset and any person with whom the patient had close contact since that date. The type of contact and setting in which the contact occurred were recorded. Close contacts of patients with confirmed or probable COVID-19 were interviewed and enrolled in active symptom monitoring using Research Electronic Data Capture software (REDCap, version 8.8.0, Vanderbilt University, 2020). Patients were classified as having confirmed COVID-19 if SARS-CoV-2 was detected by real-time reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction testing of a nasopharyngeal or oropharyngeal specimen. Patients were classified as having probable COVID-19 if they developed new symptoms of fever, cough, or shortness of breath within 14 days of contact with a patient with confirmed or probable COVID-19 but did not undergo laboratory testing (consistent with CDC recommendations,* the Illinois Department of Public Health prioritizes testing for hospitalized patients and other high-risk groups). In February 2020, a funeral was held for a decedent with a non-COVID-19, nonrespiratory cause of death. A close friend of the bereaved family (patient A1.1) attended the funeral; patients in this investigation were referred to by their family cluster letter (A or B), then by the assumed transmission generation (1–4), and finally, in sequence order within each generation (1–7) † (Figure 1). Patient A1.1 had recently traveled out of state and was experiencing mild respiratory symptoms; he was only tested later as part of the epidemiologic investigation and received a diagnosis of confirmed COVID-19. The evening before the funeral (investigation day 1), patient A1.1 shared a takeout meal, eaten from common serving dishes, with two family members of the decedent (patients B2.1 and B2.2) at their home. At the meal, which lasted approximately 3 hours, and the funeral, which lasted about 2 hours and involved a shared “potluck-style” meal, patient A1.1 also reported embracing family members of the decedent, including patients B2.1, B2.2, B2.3, and B3.1, to express condolences. FIGURE 1 Timeline of events and symptom onsets, by day of investigation, in a cluster of COVID-19 likely transmitted at two family gatherings — Chicago, Illinois, February–March 2020 Abbreviation: COVID-19 = coronavirus disease 2019. Notes: Patients were designated by their family cluster letter (A or B), then by the assumed transmission generation (1–4), and finally, by sequence within each generation (1–7). Patient A2.1 died on investigation day 18; patient A2.2 died on investigation day 27; and patient B2.1 died on investigation day 28. The figure shows a timeline of events, by day of investigation, in a cluster of COVID-19 likely transmitted at two family gatherings in Chicago, Illinois, during February–March 2020. Patients B2.1 and B2.2 subsequently developed confirmed COVID-19 with onset of symptoms 2 and 4 days, respectively, after the funeral; patient B2.3 developed probable COVID-19 with symptom onset 6 days after the funeral (investigation day 8). Patient B2.1 was hospitalized on investigation day 11, required endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation for acute repiratory failure, and died on investigation day 28. Patients B2.2 and B2.3 were managed as outpatients, and both recovered. During investigation days 11–14, another family member who had close physical contact with patient A1.1 at the funeral (patient B3.1) visited patient B2.1 on the acute medical inpatient ward, embraced patient B2.1, and provided limited personal care, while wearing no personal protective equipment (PPE). Patient B3.1 developed signs and symptoms consistent with COVID-19, including a fever and cough on investigation day 17, 3 days after last visiting B2.1. Patient B3.1 had also attended the funeral 15 days before symptom onset but described more extensive exposure while visiting patient B2.1 in the hospital. Three days after the funeral, on investigation day 5, patient A1.1, who was still experiencing mild respiratory symptoms, attended a birthday party attended by nine other family members, hosted in the home of patient A2.1. Close contact between patient A1.1 and all other attendees occurred; patient A1.1 embraced others and shared food at the 3-hour party. Seven party attendees subsequently developed COVID-19 3–7 days after the event (Figure 2), including three with confirmed cases (patients A2.1, A2.2, and A2.3) and four with probable cases (patients A2.4, A2.5, A2.6, and A2.7). Two patients with confirmed COVID-19 (A2.1 and A2.2) were hospitalized; both required endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation, and both died. One patient with a confirmed case (A2.3) experienced mild symptoms of cough and subjective low-grade fever, as did the four others who received diagnoses of probable COVID-19. Two attendees did not develop symptoms within 14 days of the birthday party. FIGURE 2 Likely incubation periods for confirmed and probable cases of COVID-19 following transmission of SARS-CoV-2 at two family gatherings (N = 15)* — Chicago, Illinois, February–March 2020 *The exposure of infection for the index patient, and consequently the incubation period, was unknown. The figure is a bar chart showing likely incubation periods for 15 confirmed and probable cases of COVID-19, following transmission of SARS-CoV-2 at two family gatherings in Chicago, Illinois, during February–March 2010. Two persons who provided personal care for patient A2.1 without using PPE, including one family member (patient A3.1) and a home care professional (patient C3.1), both developed probable COVID-19. It is likely that patient A3.1 subsequently transmitted SARS-CoV-2 to a household contact (patient A4.1), who did not attend the birthday party, but developed a new onset cough 3 days following unprotected, close contact with patient A3.1 while patient A3.1 was symptomatic. Three symptomatic birthday party attendees with probable COVID-19 (patients A2.5, A2.6, and A2.7) attended church 6 days after developing their first symptoms (investigation day 17). Another church attendee (patient D3.1, a health care professional) developed confirmed COVID-19 following close contact with patients A2.5, A2.6, and A2.7, including direct conversations, sitting within one row for 90 minutes, and passing the offering plate. The patients described in this report ranged in age from 5 to 86 years. The three patients who died (patients A2.1, B2.1 and A2.2) were aged >60 years, and all had at least one underlying cardiovascular or respiratory medical condition. Discussion This cluster comprised 16 cases of COVID-19 (seven confirmed and nine probable), with transmission mostly occurring between nonhousehold contacts at family gatherings. The median interval from last contact with a patient with confirmed or probable COVID-19 to first symptom onset was 4 days. Within 3 weeks after mild respiratory symptoms were noted in the index patient, 15 other persons were likely infected with SARS-CoV-2, including three who died. Patient A1.1, the index patient, was apparently able to transmit infection to 10 other persons, despite having no household contacts and experiencing only mild symptoms for which medical care was not sought (patient A1.1 was only tested later as part of this epidemiologic investigation). Super-spreading events have played a significant role in transmission of other recently emerged coronaviruses such as SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV ( 4 , 5 ), although their relevance to SARS-CoV-2 spread is debated ( 6 ). These data illustrate the importance of social distancing for preventing SARS-CoV-2 transmission, even within families. In this cluster, extended family gatherings (a birthday party, funeral, and church attendance), all of which occurred before major social distancing policies were implemented, might have facilitated transmission of SARS-CoV-2 beyond household contacts into the broader community. These findings support CDC recommendations to avoid gatherings ( 7 ) and reinforce the executive order from the governor of Illinois prohibiting all public and private gatherings of any number of persons occurring outside a single household ( 8 ). The findings in this investigation are subject to at least three limitations. First, lack of laboratory testing for probable cases means some probable COVID-19 patients might have instead experienced unrelated illnesses, although influenza-like illness was declining in Chicago at the time. Second, phylogenetic data, which could confirm presumed epidemiologic linkages, were unavailable. For example, patient B3.1 experienced exposure to two patients with confirmed COVID-19 in this cluster, and the causative exposure was presumed based on expected incubation periods. Patient D3.1 was a health care professional, and, despite not seeing any patients with known COVID-19, might have acquired SARS-CoV-2 during clinical practice rather than through contact with members of this cluster. Similarly, other members of the cluster might have experienced community exposures to SARS-CoV-2, although these transmission events occurred before widespread community transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in Chicago. Finally, despite intensive epidemiologic investigation, not every confirmed or probable case related to this cluster might have been detected. Persons who did not display symptoms were not evaluated for COVID-19, which, given increasing evidence of substantial asymptomatic infection ( 9 ), means the size of this cluster might be underestimated. In this cluster, two family gatherings outside the household likely facilitated the spread of SARS-CoV-2; one index patient who attended both events likely triggered a chain of transmission that included 15 other confirmed and probable cases of COVID-19 and ultimately resulted in three deaths. Media reports suggest the chain of transmission described in Chicago is not unique within the United States. § Together with evidence emerging from around the world ( 10 ), these data shed light on transmission beyond household contacts, including the potential for super-spreading events. More comprehensive information is needed to better understand the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in community settings and households to better inform initiation and termination of public health policies related to social distancing or stay-at-home orders. Overall, these findings highlight the importance of adhering to current social distancing recommendations, ¶ including guidance to avoid any gatherings with persons from multiple households and following state or local stay-at-home orders. Summary What is already known about this topic? Early reports of person-to-person transmission of SARS-CoV-2 have been among household contacts, health care workers, and within congregate living facilities. What is added by this report? Investigation of COVID-19 cases in Chicago identified a cluster of 16 confirmed or probable cases, including three deaths, likely resulting from one introduction. Extended family gatherings including a funeral and a birthday party likely facilitated transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in this cluster. What are the implications for public health practice? U.S. residents should adhere to CDC recommendations for social distancing, avoid gatherings, and follow stay-at-home orders when required by state or local authorities.
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              Unchanged pediatric out-of-hospital cardiac arrest incidence and survival rates with regional variation in North America

              Aim Outcomes for pediatric out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) are poor. Our objective was to determine temporal trends in incidence and mortality for pediatric OHCA. Methods Adjusted incidence and hospital mortality rates of pediatric non-traumatic OHCA patients from 2007-2012 were analyzed using the 9 region Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium - Epidemiological Registry (ROC-Epistry) database. Children were divided into 4 age groups: perinatal (< 3 days), infants (3 days - 1 year), children (1 - 11 years), and adolescents (12 - 19 years). ROC regions were analyzed post-hoc. Results We studied 1,738 children with OHCA. The age- and sex-adjusted incidence rate of OHCA was 8.3 per 100,000 person-years (75.3 for infants vs. 3.7 for children and 6.3 for adolescents, per 100,000 person-years, p<0.001). Incidence rates differed by year (p<0.001) without overall linear trend. Annual survival rates ranged from 6.7-10.2%. Survival was highest in the perinatal (25%) and adolescent (17.3%) groups. Stratified by age group, survival rates over time were unchanged (all p>0.05) but there was a non-significant linear trend (1.3% increase) in infants. In the multivariable logistic regression analysis, infants, unwitnessed event, initial rhythm of asystole, and region were associated with worse survival, all p<0.001. Survival by region ranged from 2.6-14.7%. Regions with the highest survival had more cases of EMS-witnessed OHCA, bystander CPR, and increased EMS-defibrillation (all p<0.05). Conclusions Overall incidence and survival of children with OHCA in ROC regions did not significantly change over a recent 5 year period. Regional variation represents an opportunity for further study to improve outcomes.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                klaus.weber@klinikum-kassel.de
                Journal
                Notf Rett Med
                Notf Rett Med
                Notfall & Rettungsmedizin
                Springer Medizin (Heidelberg )
                1434-6222
                1436-0578
                25 August 2020
                : 1-2
                Affiliations
                [1 ]GRID grid.419824.2, ISNI 0000 0004 0625 3279, Klinik für Neonatologie und allgemeine Pädiatrie, , Klinikum Kassel , ; Kassel, Deutschland
                [2 ]GRID grid.419824.2, ISNI 0000 0004 0625 3279, Interdisziplinäre Zentrale Notaufnahme, , Klinikum Kassel , ; Kassel, Deutschland
                [3 ]GRID grid.419824.2, ISNI 0000 0004 0625 3279, Klinik für Anästhesiologie, Intensivmedizin, Notfallmedizin und Schmerztherapie, , Klinikum Kassel , ; Kassel, Deutschland
                Article
                768
                10.1007/s10049-020-00768-7
                7445820
                a3113a96-1d55-42b5-9db0-b4c6d17969eb
                © Springer Medizin Verlag GmbH, ein Teil von Springer Nature 2020

                This article is made available via the PMC Open Access Subset for unrestricted research re-use and secondary analysis in any form or by any means with acknowledgement of the original source. These permissions are granted for the duration of the World Health Organization (WHO) declaration of COVID-19 as a global pandemic.

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