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      Mosquito-borne arboviruses of African origin: review of key viruses and vectors

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          Abstract

          Key aspects of 36 mosquito-borne arboviruses indigenous to Africa are summarized, including lesser or poorly-known viruses which, like Zika, may have the potential to escape current sylvatic cycling to achieve greater geographical distribution and medical importance. Major vectors are indicated as well as reservoir hosts, where known. A series of current and future risk factors is addressed. It is apparent that Africa has been the source of most of the major mosquito-borne viruses of medical importance that currently constitute serious global public health threats, but that there are several other viruses with potential for international challenge. The conclusion reached is that increased human population growth in decades ahead coupled with increased international travel and trade is likely to sustain and increase the threat of further geographical spread of current and new arboviral disease.

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          Critical review of the vector status of Aedes albopictus.

          N G Gratz (2004)
          The mosquito Aedes (Stegomyia) albopictus (Skuse) (Diptera: Culicidae), originally indigenous to South-east Asia, islands of the Western Pacific and Indian Ocean, has spread during recent decades to Africa, the mid-east, Europe and the Americas (north and south) after extending its range eastwards across Pacific islands during the early 20th century. The majority of introductions are apparently due to transportation of dormant eggs in tyres. Among public health authorities in the newly infested countries and those threatened with the introduction, there has been much concern that Ae. albopictus would lead to serious outbreaks of arbovirus diseases (Ae. albopictus is a competent vector for at least 22 arboviruses), notably dengue (all four serotypes) more commonly transmitted by Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti (L.). Results of many laboratory studies have shown that many arboviruses are readily transmitted by Ae. albopictus to laboratory animals and birds, and have frequently been isolated from wild-caught mosquitoes of this species, particularly in the Americas. As Ae. albopictus continues to spread, displacing Ae. aegypti in some areas, and is anthropophilic throughout its range, it is important to review the literature and attempt to predict whether the medical risks are as great as have been expressed in scientific journals and the popular press. Examination of the extensive literature indicates that Ae. albopictus probably serves as a maintenance vector of dengue in rural areas of dengue-endemic countries of South-east Asia and Pacific islands. Also Ae. albopictus transmits dog heartworm Dirofilaria immitis (Leidy) (Spirurida: Onchocercidae) in South-east Asia, south-eastern U.S.A. and both D. immitis and Dirofilaria repens (Raillet & Henry) in Italy. Despite the frequent isolation of dengue viruses from wild-caught mosquitoes, there is no evidence that Ae. albopictus is an important urban vector of dengue, except in a limited number of countries where Ae. aegypti is absent, i.e. parts of China, the Seychelles, historically in Japan and most recently in Hawaii. Further research is needed on the dynamics of the interaction between Ae. albopictus and other Stegomyia species. Surveillance must also be maintained on the vectorial role of Ae. albopictus in countries endemic for dengue and other arboviruses (e.g. Chikungunya, EEE, Ross River, WNV, LaCrosse and other California group viruses), for which it would be competent and ecologically suited to serve as a bridge vector.
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            Spread of the tiger: global risk of invasion by the mosquito Aedes albopictus.

            Aedes albopictus, commonly known as the Asian tiger mosquito, is currently the most invasive mosquito in the world. It is of medical importance due to its aggressive daytime human-biting behavior and ability to vector many viruses, including dengue, LaCrosse, and West Nile. Invasions into new areas of its potential range are often initiated through the transportation of eggs via the international trade in used tires. We use a genetic algorithm, Genetic Algorithm for Rule Set Production (GARP), to determine the ecological niche of Ae. albopictus and predict a global ecological risk map for the continued spread of the species. We combine this analysis with risk due to importation of tires from infested countries and their proximity to countries that have already been invaded to develop a list of countries most at risk for future introductions and establishments. Methods used here have potential for predicting risks of future invasions of vectors or pathogens.
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              Identification of a point mutation in the voltage-gated sodium channel gene of Kenyan Anopheles gambiae associated with resistance to DDT and pyrethroids.

              A field trial of permethrin-impregnated bednets and curtains was initiated in Western Kenya in 1990, and a strain of Anopheles gambiae showing reduced susceptibility to permethrin was colonized from this site in 1992. A leucine-phenylalanine substitution at position 1014 of the voltage-gated sodium channel is associated with resistance to permethrin and DDT in many insect species, including Anopheles gambiae from West Africa. We cloned and sequenced a partial sodium channel cDNA from the Kenyan permethrin-resistant strain and we identified an alternative substitution (leucine to serine) at the same position, which is linked to the inheritance of permethrin resistance in the F(2) progeny of genetic crosses between susceptible and resistant individuals. The diagnostic polymerase chain reaction (PCR) developed by Martinez-Torres et al. [(1998) Insect Mol Biol 7: 179-184] to detect kdr alleles in field populations of An. gambiae will not detect the Kenyan allele and hence reliance on this assay may lead to an underestimate of the prevalence of pyrethroid resistance in this species. We adapted the diagnostic PCR to detect the leucine-serine mutation and with this diagnostic we were able to demonstrate that this kdr allele was present in individuals collected from the Kenyan trial site in 1986, prior to the introduction of pyrethroid-impregnated bednets. The An. gambiae sodium channel was physically mapped to chromosome 2L, division 20C. This position corresponds to the location of a major quantitative trait locus determining resistance to permethrin in the Kenyan strain of An. gambiae.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                leo.braack@up.ac.za
                palmeida@ihmt.unl.pt
                ajcornel@ucanr.edu
                bob.swanepoel@up.ac.za
                tiaan.dejager@up.ac.za
                Journal
                Parasit Vectors
                Parasit Vectors
                Parasites & Vectors
                BioMed Central (London )
                1756-3305
                9 January 2018
                9 January 2018
                2018
                : 11
                : 29
                Affiliations
                [1 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2107 2298, GRID grid.49697.35, School of Health Systems & Public Health, University of Pretoria, ; Pretoria, South Africa
                [2 ]ISNI 0000000121511713, GRID grid.10772.33, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, ; Lisbon, Portugal
                [3 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2107 2298, GRID grid.49697.35, Department of Medical Virology, , University of Pretoria, ; Pretoria, South Africa
                [4 ]ISNI 0000 0004 1936 9684, GRID grid.27860.3b, Department of Entomology and Nematology, Mosquito Control Research Laboratory, , Kearney Agricultural Center, UC Davis, ; Parlier, CA USA
                [5 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2107 2298, GRID grid.49697.35, Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, , University of Pretoria, ; Pretoria, South Africa
                [6 ]ISNI 0000 0001 2107 2298, GRID grid.49697.35, Faculty of Health Sciences, , University of Pretoria, ; Pretoria, South Africa
                Author information
                http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5286-5052
                Article
                2559
                10.1186/s13071-017-2559-9
                5759361
                29316963
                a4d051f5-7828-42f6-9956-234710ccc6c8
                © The Author(s). 2018

                Open AccessThis article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver ( http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

                History
                : 5 June 2017
                : 27 November 2017
                Categories
                Review
                Custom metadata
                © The Author(s) 2018

                Parasitology
                africa,mosquito-borne arboviruses,vector mosquitoes,zoonoses,global health threats
                Parasitology
                africa, mosquito-borne arboviruses, vector mosquitoes, zoonoses, global health threats

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