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      Effects of Ocean Acidification on Juvenile Red King Crab ( Paralithodes camtschaticus) and Tanner Crab ( Chionoecetes bairdi) Growth, Condition, Calcification, and Survival

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          Abstract

          Ocean acidification, a decrease in the pH in marine waters associated with rising atmospheric CO 2 levels, is a serious threat to marine ecosystems. In this paper, we determine the effects of long-term exposure to near-future levels of ocean acidification on the growth, condition, calcification, and survival of juvenile red king crabs, Paralithodes camtschaticus, and Tanner crabs, Chionoecetes bairdi. Juveniles were reared in individual containers for nearly 200 days in flowing control (pH 8.0), pH 7.8, and pH 7.5 seawater at ambient temperatures (range 4.4–11.9 °C). In both species, survival decreased with pH, with 100% mortality of red king crabs occurring after 95 days in pH 7.5 water. Though the morphology of neither species was affected by acidification, both species grew slower in acidified water. At the end of the experiment, calcium concentration was measured in each crab and the dry mass and condition index of each crab were determined. Ocean acidification did not affect the calcium content of red king crab but did decrease the condition index, while it had the opposite effect on Tanner crabs, decreasing calcium content but leaving the condition index unchanged. This suggests that red king crab may be able to maintain calcification rates, but at a high energetic cost. The decrease in survival and growth of each species is likely to have a serious negative effect on their populations in the absence of evolutionary adaptation or acclimatization over the coming decades.

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          Meta-analysis reveals negative yet variable effects of ocean acidification on marine organisms.

          Ocean acidification is a pervasive stressor that could affect many marine organisms and cause profound ecological shifts. A variety of biological responses to ocean acidification have been measured across a range of taxa, but this information exists as case studies and has not been synthesized into meaningful comparisons amongst response variables and functional groups. We used meta-analytic techniques to explore the biological responses to ocean acidification, and found negative effects on survival, calcification, growth and reproduction. However, there was significant variation in the sensitivity of marine organisms. Calcifying organisms generally exhibited larger negative responses than non-calcifying organisms across numerous response variables, with the exception of crustaceans, which calcify but were not negatively affected. Calcification responses varied significantly amongst organisms using different mineral forms of calcium carbonate. Organisms using one of the more soluble forms of calcium carbonate (high-magnesium calcite) can be more resilient to ocean acidification than less soluble forms (calcite and aragonite). Additionally, there was variation in the sensitivities of different developmental stages, but this variation was dependent on the taxonomic group. Our analyses suggest that the biological effects of ocean acidification are generally large and negative, but the variation in sensitivity amongst organisms has important implications for ecosystem responses. © 2010 Blackwell Publishing Ltd/CNRS.
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            Response of the Arctic Pteropod Limacina helicina to Projected Future Environmental Conditions

            Thecosome pteropods (pelagic mollusks) can play a key role in the food web of various marine ecosystems. They are a food source for zooplankton or higher predators such as fishes, whales and birds that is particularly important in high latitude areas. Since they harbor a highly soluble aragonitic shell, they could be very sensitive to ocean acidification driven by the increase of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. The effect of changes in the seawater chemistry was investigated on Limacina helicina, a key species of Arctic pelagic ecosystems. Individuals were kept in the laboratory under controlled pCO2 levels of 280, 380, 550, 760 and 1020 µatm and at control (0°C) and elevated (4°C) temperatures. The respiration rate was unaffected by pCO2 at control temperature, but significantly increased as a function of the pCO2 level at elevated temperature. pCO2 had no effect on the gut clearance rate at either temperature. Precipitation of CaCO3, measured as the incorporation of 45Ca, significantly declined as a function of pCO2 at both temperatures. The decrease in calcium carbonate precipitation was highly correlated to the aragonite saturation state. Even though this study demonstrates that pteropods are able to precipitate calcium carbonate at low aragonite saturation state, the results support the current concern for the future of Arctic pteropods, as the production of their shell appears to be very sensitive to decreased pH. A decline of pteropod populations would likely cause dramatic changes to various pelagic ecosystems.
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              Effects of high CO2 seawater on the copepod (Acartia tsuensis) through all life stages and subsequent generations.

              We studied the effects of exposure to seawater equilibrated with CO(2)-enriched air (CO(2) 2380 ppm) from eggs to maturity and over two subsequent generations on the copepod Acartia tsuensis. Compared to the control (CO(2) 380 ppm), high CO(2) exposure through all life stages of the 1st generation copepods did not significantly affect survival, body size or developmental speed. Egg production and hatching rates were also not significantly different between the initial generation of females exposed to high CO(2) and the 1st and 2nd generation females developed from eggs to maturity in high CO(2). Thus, the copepods appear more tolerant to increased CO(2) than other marine organisms previously investigated for CO(2) tolerance (i.e., sea urchins and bivalves). However, the crucial importance of copepods in marine ecosystems requires thorough evaluation of the overall impacts of marine environmental changes predicted to occur with increased CO(2) concentrations, i.e., increased temperature, enhanced UV irradiation, and changes in the community structure and nutritional value of phytoplankton.
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                Author and article information

                Contributors
                Role: Editor
                Journal
                PLoS One
                PLoS ONE
                plos
                plosone
                PLoS ONE
                Public Library of Science (San Francisco, USA )
                1932-6203
                2013
                4 April 2013
                : 8
                : 4
                : e60959
                Affiliations
                [1]Kodiak Laboratory, Resource Assessment and Conservation Engineering Division, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, Kodiak, Alaska, United States of America
                University of Gothenburg, Sweden
                Author notes

                Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

                Conceived and designed the experiments: WCL KMS RJF. Performed the experiments: WCL KMS CH HNP. Analyzed the data: WCL. Wrote the paper: WCL.

                [¤]

                Current address: Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California, United States of America

                Article
                PONE-D-12-28243
                10.1371/journal.pone.0060959
                3617201
                23593357
                a61537f6-7c80-476e-a65d-014437fee8d2
                Copyright @ 2013

                This is an open-access article, free of all copyright, and may be freely reproduced, distributed, transmitted, modified, built upon, or otherwise used by anyone for any lawful purpose. The work is made available under the Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication.

                History
                : 14 September 2012
                : 4 March 2013
                Page count
                Pages: 10
                Funding
                Funding was supplied through the NOAA Ocean Acidification Program ( http://www.oar.noaa.gov/oceans/ocean-acidification/index.html). HP was supported by a NOAA Hollings Fellowship ( http://www.oesd.noaa.gov/scholarships/hollings.html), and CH by was supported by a Pollock Conservation Cooperative Fund Award from Alaska Pacific University ( http://marine.alaskapacific.edu/marine/announcement.html). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.
                Categories
                Research Article
                Biology
                Anatomy and Physiology
                Ecology
                Ecological Environments
                Marine Environments
                Global Change Ecology
                Marine Ecology
                Population Ecology
                Marine Biology
                Fisheries Science
                Marine Ecology
                Population Biology
                Population Ecology
                Chemistry
                Environmental Chemistry
                Marine Chemistry
                Earth Sciences
                Marine and Aquatic Sciences
                Marine Ecology

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